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功能和描述翻译应用研究，介绍了这项研究的目的，是探索描述翻译研究的可能优势在其翻译实践和翻译ANALY应用..
这项研究的目的是探索描述翻译研究的优势可能在其在翻译实践和翻译分析中的应用。
自20世纪初，翻译研究逐渐脱离了其他相关学科中的边缘地位路程，确立了其作为一门经验科学。从那时起，思想学派一直保持现身，每个声称其合法性的存在。这些学校之间是描述性的翻译研究（DTS）。
DTS从实证的角度来看待翻译。翻译被认为是具有在接收培养和目标社区显著重要的社会活动。因此，翻译处理超越语言的实现方式和语言进行比较，并在社会和文化背景结合。
我的注意力首先导演的观察，描述和解释其特有的特点为DTS。主体在翻译实践中无论发生什么事，从翻译的预期功能的决心译者的选择策略，头脑风暴和修改的过程，到最终产品制造的目标社区的外观。
DTS的方法基本上是描述性的。指令性趋势和问题解决模式被放弃。翻译现象记录下来。与积累的数据，关于翻译的一些潜在的真相就会出来，这将被证明是不仅是理论探讨，也为应用翻译实践指导意义。我将在本文的案例研究应用此描述方法。
一个方便的工具已经成立来进行DTS。 “规范”是在描述和解释的每个阶段工作。功能，工艺和产品以及它们以及关系是什么构成了描述性研究的骨骼结构。翻译现象占与规范的帮助。
本文采取的案例是中国经典红楼梦的梦想。分别杨宪益和大卫鹰派译英译本进行比较和意见对于其翻译的方法进行。
在这方面，我的意见限于几个方面，我希望深入观察和说明中的dts的光进行。
2.1开发和DTS的主要概念
在这一部分，我将描述霍尔姆斯“DTS的基本地图之间的功能，工艺和产品的关系。
2.2 methodolgy
我将在这部分讨论DTS的方法之前，我采用相同的，以本文重点案例研究要放在符号学方法和概念常态。
2.3 DTS在对比其他理论
对比研究将在这里与目标进行，以找到DTS的其他理论，如等理论和中国信达雅的标准差。一些优势将可能在本次研究中显示。
2.4案例研究
在这部分的红楼梦梦（又译石头的故事）的翻译将是下DTS光调查。在这里引述的翻译样品将在兰多被选中
基于DTS的上述阐述和案例研究，结论可能会在翻译的具体研究DTS的优势。进一步的研究工作的建议也将被制成。
（注意：当主题将保持不变，内容的上述安排可能在写作过程中改变。）
附录2 – 引文范例（仅供参考）
“这是毫无意义的，因此要尽量让TC更加科学比鉴于其复杂的主题和方法也懂事了。 。翻译是不能穷尽一个语言框架，忽略了翻译的人内调查了精神，多因素的活动“（威尔斯，）
‘“噢，这就是恐水病吧？你们贵族圈子怎么流行起这种病来啦？真够呛的！费芬斯小姐，您喝点茶大概没关系吧！”’（张南峰，）
附录3参考文献范例（仅供参考）
威尔斯，钨。问题和方法 – 翻译的科学。冈特NARR蒂宾根出版社，1982年。
纽马克，彼得。翻译的教科书。纽约：Prentice Hall出版社，1988年。
delabastita，德克。双关语翻译：翻译研究一个虚假的反对。目标，）：137-152。
国际关系学院
对外经济贸易大学
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提交给国际关系学院的论文
对外经济贸易大学
在需求部分履行
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时间：XXXX
北京，中国
function and application of descriptive translation studies 1 introduction the intention of this study is to explore possible advantages of descriptive translation studies as in its application in translation practice and translation analy..
function and application of descriptive translation studies
1 introduction
the intention of this study is to explore possible advantages of descriptive translation studies as in its application in translation practice and translation analysis.
since early 20th century, translation studies gradually broke away from the marginal status within other related disciplines and established itself as an empirical science. from then on, schools of thought have kept coming out and each claims its legitimacy for existence. among these schools is descriptive translation studies (dts).
dts approaches translation from an empirical perspective. translation is viewed to be a social activity having significant importance in the receiving culture and for the target community. therefore, translation is dealt with beyond the linguistic realization and language comparison, and is incorporated in social and cultural context.
my attention was first directed to dts by its peculiar characteristic of observation, description and explanation. the subject is whatever happens in translation practice, from the determination of prospective function of translation to the process of translator’s choice of strategies, brainstorming and the revision, to the final product making appearance in the target community.
the method of dts is basically descriptive. the prescriptive tendency and the problem-solution pattern is abandoned. translation phenomena are noted down. with accumulated data, some underlying truths about translation will come out which will prove to be instructive not only for theoretical probe but also for applied translation practice. i will apply this descriptive method in the case study of this thesis.
a convenient tool has been set up to conduct dts. “norm” is operative at every stage of description and explanation. function, process and product and their relationship as well are skeletal structure of what constitute descriptive studies. translation phenomena are accounted for with the help of norm.
the case taken in this thesis is the chinese classic the dream of red mansions. two english versions translated respectively by yang hsien-yi and david hawks are compared and observations are made in regard to their translation approaches.
in this regard, my observations are limited to several aspects, i hope in-depth observation and explanation will done in light of dts.
2.1 development and major concepts of dts
in this part i will describe holms’ basic map of dts and the relationship between function, process and product.
2.2 methodolgy
i will in this part discuss the methodology of dts before i apply the same to the case study in this thesis with emphasis to be placed on semiotic approach and the concept norm.
2.3 dts in contrast to other theories
a contrast study will be conducted here with the objective to find the difference of dts from other theories such as equivalence theory and the chinese xin da ya criteria. some advantage will possibly be shown in this study.
2.4 case study
in this part, translation of the dream of red mansions (also translated as the story of the stone) will be under investigation in light of dts. translation samples to be quoted here will be selected at rando
2.5 conclusion
based on the above elaboration of dts and the case study, possible conclusion will be on the advantage of dts in specific study of translation. suggestions on further research efforts will be made also.
(note: while the topic will remain the same, the above arrangement of contents is subject to change in the process of writing.)
附录2- 引文范例(仅供参考)
“it is therefore pointless to try to make tc more scientific than is sensible in view of its complex subject-matter and available methods. translating is a mental, multi-factorial activity which cannot exhaustively be investigated within a linguistic framework ignoring the person of the translator.”(wilss, )
‘“噢，这就是恐水病吧？你们贵族圈子怎么流行起这种病来啦？真够呛的！费芬斯小姐，您喝点茶大概没关系吧！”’（张南峰，）
附录3- 参考文献范例(仅供参考)
wilss, wolfram. the science of translation – problems and methods. gunter narr verlag tubingen,1982.
newmark, peter. a textbook of translation. new york: prentice hall, 1988.
delabastita, dirk. translating puns: a false opposition in translation studies. target, ):137-152.
school of international studies
university of international business and economics
pragmatic strategies
in advertising: implicatures
a thesis submitted to school of international studies of
university of international business and economics
in partial fulfillment of the requirement
for the degree of master of arts
beijing, china
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论文主题：什么是建议？它有哪些限制（在一段时间内，被检查的地理区域，组织和理论等）这应该在提案的开头就说。
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文献综述主要是介绍与主题有关的详细资料、动态、进展、展望以及对以上方面的评述。所以说文献综述的格式也相对多样，但总的来说，一般都包含以下四部分：即前言、主题、总结和参考文献。写文献综述时可按这四部分拟写提纲，再根据提纲进行撰写工作。那么具体如何写文献综述呢？
有人可能会认为一个文献综述作为读一本书，然后给它一个竖起大拇指或大拇指朝下。不，并非如此。文献综述是一个主题各件文献，从系列书籍短篇作品像小册子的审查。有时，文学评论是一个更大的研究论文的一部分。其目的是为了防止重复工作，化解矛盾，并指出进一步研究的方式。
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你应该有多少的来源包括？他/她是否希望每个类型的特定号码？难道他们必须至少是半流？
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缩小您的话题。获得窄，你可能可以同时还具有必要的资源量。研究出生顺序可能会导致您几十本书;同性兄弟姐妹就读出生顺序会让你的源更快，更易于管理的搜索。
获取当前。如果你是在人文，历史或社会科学写的评论，你可以买得起用时间不太关注（事实上，改变整个历史的观点可能是你的论文的一个方面）。但是，如果你正在写一部文学审查的科学，比如说，在治疗糖尿病，从5年前的信息可能已经过时。通过排序当前书目或文学评论领域得到你的纪律所期待的感觉。
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构建你的论文。现在，你已经找到你的注意力，它的时间来构建一个主题句。你也许会想，文学评论没有论文语句。这两个部分是真假：他们有论文，但他们完全不同。你的论文语句不一定会主张的位置或意见;相反，它会认为有关材料的特殊视角。
例如，“当前[专题]在趋势是A，B和C，”或“X战警理论假设大多数的来源，从1985年”。说明像这样引出了几个问题，让您的评论更有趣和有意义的：趋势将如何改变未来？如果假设的理论是错的？
再次，这并不是新的信息。你是不是分析材料来了，上面有你自己的，新的视角。你只是像个电脑 – 注意模式，孔洞，并假设所有的源服用。
评估你的源代码。你可以有最好的意图和散文的形式，说服持怀疑态度坚定，但如果你的源代码是没有生命力的，仅此而已。 Finito。确保您的源上的多个层面的评估。
什么是作者的凭据？他们的论据是如何支持（叙述，统计，历史的发现，等等）？
是作者的角度来看偏见和客观？难道他们忽略任何数据，使他们看起来点强？
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难道他们的工作导致的主题更深入的了解？
构建你的文献
开始了坚实的介绍。正如一切，第一印象关系。您的介绍应该给您的评论的话题进行快速的想法，无论是主题或组织模式。
让他们知道他们在什么样的车程，沿读者有所帮助。如果您采用的论文声明，把它向你介绍段落的末尾。最后，你的读者应该是期待进入纸张的证据和批量。
组织机构。在这里你有最多的选择的部分。你有许多来源，并且由于他们都在相同的主题，他们可能具有共同的负荷。选择哪种方式似乎是最自然的你的具体重点。
按时间顺序安排。如果你正在处理与时代不同的看法，或随着时间的推移不断变化的趋势，按时间顺序组织可能最有意义。
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由趋势安排。如果你注意到在你的源模式，由他们认为可能是最明显的结构趋势排列它们。某些源可以一起，建议移动随着时间的推移，区域或其它可变一个图案。
主题安排。这在很大程度上取决于你的论文声明，你选择什么样的来源。如果你选择一个重点是更抽象（“殖民主义被描绘成邪恶”为例），各小节可以布置在采用跨把主题的不同方法。
得出一个明确的结论。最后一段需要包你的文件，重申了在介绍说，讨论从学习至今所绘制的内容。
你可以让你的结论暗示。凡可能讨论进行，如果别人把它捡起来你离开的地方？什么是今天的来源的模式和孔的后果是什么？
使用的证据。随意组合多个来源的到你自己的话来的理由。您正在使用由专业的工程备份自己的话。
但是，使用引号谨慎。文献回顾的调查性质不允许进行深入的讨论，或从text.Some短的人都很好，请务必详细的报价，但一切的一切，应该由你来写。
保持你自己的声音。不，你不提出，从你自己的心灵的奇迹兴起的信息，但你还是应该开始和结束用你自己的话每个段落。你的声音应该保持前沿和中心。
当转述这是不是你自己的来源，一定要代表作者的信息或意见准确，用自己的话。然后，它与您的评论的上下文。
有些教授可能需要您评估的来源和总结这件加入该领域的最大的贡献。如果你是热衷于此，决定你采取引进和字符串它在你的论文。
修改你的工作
检查指导。有些教授喜欢他们的论文一定的方式。请确保你不仅满足内容准则，但符合格式指引，太。
你是否需要教练APA格式？应该怎样你的利润有多大？页眉，页脚，脚注和页码？他们怎么想你的名字，标题和副标题？他们怎么想你的作品引用页面？
检查连贯流动和转换。这是最好坚持简洁明了写作，它并不总是容易明确是第一次尝试。回到了你的工作和改述所剩下的含糊不清或罗嗦。
一切说像白昼一样，它流动起来？你们好转型不仅一段段，但是从判决判？要确保你的证据线与支持，您的来源安排在逻辑上流动。
消除无用的行话或俚语。这一努力过程中，您可能已经长大了一个全新的词汇，但是你的教授还没有。编写能够被大众读报纸。不要让过于深奥。
校对你的工作。你有困难的部分了。现在，所有你需要做的就是去在它的拼写，语法和标点符号。以写作和校对的休息 – 你的大脑可能有点饱和。跳回到它当您准备好。
最好是让别人去了你的工作了。您可能已经读过很多次你再也不能看到你陷入葡萄牙心不在焉。一组不同的眼睛可以找到您可能没有看到错误，请你们没有意识到是没有得到解决的问题，或寻求对foggier点澄清。
How to Do a Literature Review
Some people might think of a literature review as reading a book and then giving it a thumbs up or thumbs down. Nope, not so. A literature review is a review of various pieces of literature on one topic, ranging from series of books to shorter pieces like pamphlets. Sometimes, the literary review is a part of a larger research paper. Its purpose is to prevent duplication of efforts, resolve conflicts, and point the way for further research.
Before Writing
Clarify your professor’s requirements. Some instructors may ask you to do a literature review and not get more specific than that. Or, maybe they did and you were playing Plants vs Zombies. Either way, knowing precisely what your professor is looking for is the first step to getting that A.
How many sources should you include? Does he/she want a specific number of each type? Do they have to be at least semi-current?
In discussing your themes, are you just summarizing or critiquing? Some reviews require a thesis, some may not.
Should you offer your opinion on your sources?
Do you need to provide background information, such as definitions or histories, to aid in your audience’s understanding?
Is there a page or word requirement?
Narrow your topic. Get as narrow as you possibly can while still having the amount of sources necessary. Studying birth order may lead yo studying birth order of same-sex siblings will make your search for sources much quicker and more manageable.
Get current. If you are writing a review in the humanities, history, or social sciences, you can afford to be less concerned with timing (in fact, changing opinions throughout history may be an aspect of your paper). But if you are writing a literary review for the sciences, say, on treating diabetes, information from 5 years ago could already be obsolete. Sort through current bibliographies or literature reviews in the field to get a sense of what your discipline expects.
Find a focus. Unfortunately, you are not just gathering sources and summing up what they have to say. You should be considering what themes and ideas connect your sources together. Think of these books as your group of friends all arguing on the same topic. What are they all assuming? How are they the same and how are they different?
Read between the lines. You’re not necessarily looking for explicit content. Is there an aspect of the field that is missing? Are your sources all prescribing to one specific theory? Do you see trends being revealed? This will help you structure your paper immensely, zeroing in on what will give your paper purpose.
Construct your thesis. Now that you’ve found your focus, it’s time to construct a thesis statement. You may be thinking that literature reviews don’t have thesis statements. That’s both partly true and false: They have theses, but they’re quite different. Your thesis statement will not necessarily argue for a po rather, it will argue for a particular perspective on the material.
For example, “Current trends in [topic] are A, B, and C,” or “The X Theory is assumed by most sources from 1985 on.” Stating something like this begs a few questions, making your review more interesting and meaningful: How will trends change in the future? What if the assumed theories are wrong?
Again, this is not new information. You are not analyzing the material and coming up with your own, fresh perspective on it. You are simply acting like a computer–noting patterns, holes, and assumptions all your sources are taking.
Assess your sources. You can have the best of intentions and a form of prose that convinces the staunchest of skeptics, but if your sources aren’t viable, that’s it. Finito. Make sure your sources are evaluated on a number of levels.
What are the author’s credentials? How are their arguments supported (narratives, statistics, historical findings, etc.)?
Is the author’s perspective unbiased and objective? Are they ignoring any data to make their points seem stronger?
How persuasive are they? Do any of their points leave a bit to be desired?
Does their work lead to a greater understanding of the subject?
Constructing Your Paper
Start with a solid introduction. As with everything, first impressions matter. Your intro should give a quick idea of the topic of your review, be it thematically or by organizational pattern.
Help the reader along by letting them know what kind of ride they’re in for. If you are employing a thesis statement, place it toward the end of your introductory paragraph. At the end, your reader should be anticipating getting into the evidence and bulk of your paper.
Organize the body. Here is the part where you have the most options. You have a number of sources and, since they’re all on the same topic, they probably have loads in common. Choose whichever way seems the most natural to you for your specific focus.
Arrange it chronologically. If you are dealing with varying opinions by era or changing trends over time, chronological organization may make the most sense.
Arrange it by publication. This organizational method fares well if each publication has a different stance. If there is a natural progression (radical to conservative, for example) between the sources, this works swimmingly.
Arrange it by trend. If you are noticing patterns in your sources, arranging them by the trends they suggest may be the most obvious structure. Certain sources may, together, suggest one pattern that shifts over time, region, or other variable.
Arrange it thematically. This highly depends on your thesis statement and what sources you have chosen. If you are choosing a focus that is more abstract (“Colonialism is depicted as evil,” for example), the subsections may be arranged on the different methods employed to put the theme across.
Come to a clear conclusion. The closing paragraph needs to wrap up your paper, reiterate what was said in the intro, and discuss what you’ve drawn so far from your studies.
You may make your conclusion suggestive. Where might the discussion proceed if someone else picked it up where you left off? What are the consequences of the patterns and holes in toda
想要写好Essay需要有批判性思考能力，只要拥有批判性思考的能力就能更加方便的写出一篇好的Essay。
如果你的思维模糊或有缺陷的，你的决定可能会导致小于理想的后果。思维技巧很容易被认为是理所当然的。 “当然，我能想到的！”你可以对自己说。现在的问题是，如何你觉得呢？
价值客观存在的。如果是立足于现实我们的思维也只能是有效的。现实是客观的;它独立于自己的愿望，愿望，率性和目标存在。你的思维将是富有成效的，你是能够准确地感知和理解这一现实的程度。这需要客观-的分离“是什么”，从你可能要相信什么或可能会更舒服相信的能力。
保持开放的心态。一个封闭的头脑从现实切断。封闭的头脑思考者可以很容易地被识别;他或她有刚性一套不公开讨论的意见和态度。这样的思想者不能与理性的，因为这种方法涉及处理新的输入。如果你觉得如果你谈话的砖墙，你可能处理一个封闭的心灵思想家。然而，作为开放的态度并不意味着你不应该被真理站在你也知道了，或者是你必须接受的各个角度。真相会承受质疑;只是错觉是思想交流的威胁。
不要容忍持续的和非生产性的歧义。你面对的大部分决策包含一定程度的模糊性，明显的非黑即白的替代品之间的灰色地带。这不是不确定性的容忍一个参数;这是锻炼的思想，建立清晰的权力的建议。歧义往往是草率的，不完整的，或者的非理性思维的症状。当您遇到这样的状态，现在是时候仔细检查你的前提，你的原则，你的知识，你的思维过程的功效。知识是清晰的不确定性和混乱的渐进检索。
避免行列。当一个概念流行起来，很多人会赶时髦拥抱它。这通常更多的是整合的功能比它是批判性思维。看看（想想）你三思而后行。
观察和推理区分，即遵循既定事实与猜测之间。
扣压判断，直到你确定你有足够的信息。这可能是很有诱惑力的妄下结论，但你可能在你没有看到一个洞结束。在另一方面，一旦你有足够的信息，不要犹豫，使基于它的判断。判断是思维过程的一部分，你的能力的应用程序来对现实的结论。
保持幽默感。你可以不直想如果一切好像生死你的问题。的能力，自嘲和看到的情况幽默往往可以帮助你保持思想和观点的清晰度。但是，提防用作武器的笑声诋毁你的价值或作为一个心理防线;这些用途需要认真回应。
培养求知欲。这个世界充满了事情你还不知道。好奇心是一个初衷就是自由和开放的现实的奇迹，不怕面对未知，才能掌握新知识的迹象。一位好奇的思想家将探索看待事物和处事方式新。如果你培养一颗好奇的心学习能不断的和令人兴奋的发现的冒险之旅。
不要拿东西的表面价值。在幼年时，我们大多数人学会不相信我们听到的一切。想象一下，你会是多么失望，如果你相信你在电视广告听到索赔！此相同原则应适用于附带通过媒体，甚至什么是作为其他信息“新闻”。其目的是要咀嚼（有时吐出），而不是整个吞下！谨防包装隐藏的真相。有时与前面看上画面一个大箱子承担什么是藏在里面的关系不大。打开它，看看自己！
挑战传统智慧。每一种文化是基于一定的假设去很大程度上毋庸置疑。伽利略，意大利天文学家和数学家，被宗教裁判所前，因为他敢于质疑“真相”，认为地球是宇宙的中心带来的。即使在今天，扁平地球协会的成员表示相信，世界是平如煎饼！你不能假设真理确实是真的什么是普遍接受的。真理是由理性思维建立的，而不是由一个民意调查和过去的做法。
抵制呼吁情感。情感有时会影响你的原因。如果你生气或欣喜若狂，你的思考过程将不会以同样的方式，当你在一个更冷静的心情工作。谨防在你的情绪被故意刺激（由奉承，恐惧或anticipations当你被要求做出决定的情况。这可能是操纵的结果的策略。
不要自动接受权威。权威上诉是一个最喜欢的广告噱头：好莱坞明星，体育人物，和流行文化的英雄被用来促进一切从早餐麦片内衣和腋下除臭剂。我们感到鼓舞认为，如果他（或她）说，这是伟大的东西，一定是！这样的权力得到支付数百万美元的他或她代言的事实可能是足以让你质疑他作为一个客观的权威。
谨防他人的自我取悦行为。奉承是说服的时间兑现方法。如果有人奉承开始，他们可能打算与你的思维还是在他们的口袋里的钱结束。这并不总是容易分辨真诚的赞美，旨在操纵你的陈述之间的区别。
要知道你自己的自我增强行为。决定通常可以通过您希望出现对自己或他人的影响。如果你过于担心保持给定的图像，你可能会做，说事情是不是真的在你自己的最佳利益。当你实现真正的自尊，基于外表的行为往往失去了吸引力。
维持透视感。当你在一个重要的事情之中，很容易失去对局势的平衡的观点。它往往是一个很好的做法，以“缩小”和查看此事在更大的范围内。一种方法建立的角度来看：在一到十的规模，一个是草和十个正在全球范围内的核毁灭刀片死亡，什么是你的情况率是多少？它是真正的关键，因为它似乎在那一刻？
要注意的潜规则。有时候，我们的行为方式是通过潜规则决定的。如果你不知道有这样的潜规则，你不会有你需要做出一个明智的决定的知识。如果你是在一个熟悉的情况下，机会是你知道规则（例如：不捣乱，不问老板，不要挑战教授）。如果你是在一个陌生的情况下（或外来文化），就可以支付是不同寻常的观察力和质疑那些更熟悉情况。这并不是说，你应该由这样的规则的限制，只有它们中的一个认识是可取的。
请注意非语言行为的线索。言语交流的影响不到你从别人收到消息的一半。消息的其余部分是通过非言语行为传递。您将通过双方的影响。如果有人充当友好而痛苦地挤压你的手握手，你可能有理由怀疑他或她在说些什么！如果有人在他的椅子上，打呵欠向后伸，同时告诉你他是在你的想法如何兴趣同样适用。情况的事实更清楚你的观念中，清晰的你的思维会。
在压力下，停下来思考。冲动的决策往往会导致决策失误。至于决策的压力增大，诱惑做出冲动的决定也随之增加。您可以认为任何决定比优柔寡断更加合理化这一点;这是很少如此。优柔寡断往往是较差的决策技能的结果。冲动仅仅保证你将收获决策失误的后果更快！
看到超越标签和成见。标签和成见是一种精神的简写，可以方便的思维和沟通。如果您需要设计一个坐四条腿的一件家具，更容易要求一个椅子上，忽略设计和材料的许多可能的变化。不过，如果你正在调查可能的职业选择，你不应该满足于参与你想知道到底什么是真正的意思是一个警察，脑外科专家，或金融分析师职业的刻板描述。同样，处理来自不同背景和文化背景的人受到严重损害的陈腐观念掩盖真相的阻碍。
铲除消极的自我谈话。大部分的思维传递什么真的自我对话子的声音，你不断地与自己进行交谈。这种自我暗示往往需要关键的判断和对自己态度的形式。你的思维能力可以通过自我对话，超过并传达负面的信息一再被削弱，强化负面的自我形象（“我不能做任何事情的权利”，“我只是不一样聪明的其他人”）或态度（ “我还是不相信任何人”，“学校是浪费时间”）。除非这种消极的思想受到挑战和更积极的自我对话取代的时候，会以不希望的方式来影响你的决定。在这种变化的基本要素是自尊的培养。心理咨询是一个很好的解决了这类问题。
寻找一致性。爱默生曾经写道：“愚蠢的一致性是小小的心灵的妖怪。”一个深思熟虑的一致性，但是，仔细和彻底的思维特点。一致性和逻辑都应该适用于你考虑什么标准。不一致经常被用来掩盖真相。
实践同情。还有，你应该作出判断前，走在他人的鹿皮鞋一英里印度的说法。换句话说，你不应该评判别人，直到你完全了解他们的情况。通过实施这种类型的同情，你会减少使得瞬间判断，你可能以后会后悔的可能性。你也可能会发现一点理解便于深入了解其他人和他们的行为。更深层次的洞察自己和他人，明智你的决定会。
花时间去核对事实。如果你没有澄清事实，你的决定有可能被扭曲。在一些重要的事情，你应该尝试获得对相关事实的第一手资料的访问。如果你想做出一番事业的决定，并想了解一下您的职业技能，最好是采取一种能力倾向测试，而不是问你的哥们，他们认为什么是“你擅长的。”同样，最好是找到工作的性质对于给定的职业，根据公认的参考和工人的访谈，而不是依赖于刻板印象，可能是满偏真理，显著遗漏。请检查您的信息的可靠性。它是否来自可靠的消息来源？你可以发现，确认您的另一个信息来源？如果你能肯定回答这些问题，你可以更自信，你作为你的决策依据使用的事实。
检查您的信息的有效性。信息可能是可靠的，但无效。有效性具有的信息，其中被施加它的上下文的相关性有关。它可能是一个可靠的事实，当你划火柴，火会导致 – 除非你是在水下还是在太空真空！语境很重要！
培养听力技巧。当涉及到谈话中，你听到的就是你得到的。倾听是另一种技能，我们往往想当然，但很少以最有效的，我们认为利用。有多少次你一直在交谈中，突然意识到对方问你，你没听到的问题吗？多久你这么跟你自己的想法全神贯注在课堂上，你调出来的教练？它发生在我们所有人，这说明练这个看似简单的技能的难度。你听好了，更多的正确的信息，你将获得;你有更多的正确的信息，更好的决定，你会做。
要知道非逻辑思维的。有专门的逻辑，并且其中它可以被扭曲的方式整个哲学书。刻板印象往往是基于不合逻辑的思考，没有事实依据核实的应用在通用的方式具体特点，或假设两个不相关的事件之间的因果关系。广告通常鼓励不合逻辑协会：牛肉被吹捧为“以粮为真实的人”（什么“不真实”的人吃什么？），和洁白的牙齿或右除臭似乎在你的脚下，以保证辣妹（或帅哥）的一群（在哪里佳洁士？）。这似乎是显而易见的，这样的说法是荒谬的，但有人支付大笔资金，这些广告是有原因的！
听从你的直觉。我们每个人都有对事物在同一时间或另一种预感。这些预感往往是信息登记在比自觉意识其他级别的结果。这是当你感觉到有人盯着你，只为查找和发现它是真实等。有没有合理的理由相信有人在找你吗，但它在某种程度上仍然注册。直觉不能采取逻辑思维的地方，但它可以被开发作为一种有价值的补充。试图通过更多地了解你的直觉，你可以增加你的敏感性，这种信息。当你学会测试，并相信它，它可以提高你的决策能力。
How to Develop Critical Thinking Skills
If your thinking is fuzzy or flawed, your decisions may lead to less than desirable consequences. Thinking skills are easily taken for granted. “Surely I can think!” you may say to yourself. The question is, how well do you think?
Value objective reality. Our thinking can only be effective if it is based on reality. R it exists independently of your desires, wishes, whims, and objectives. Your thinking will be productive to the extent that you are able to accurately perceive and interpret this reality. This requires objectivity–the ability to separate “what is” from what you might want to believe or what might be more comforting to believe.
Keep an open mind. A closed mind is cut off from reality. The closed mind thinker can
he or she has a rigid set of opinions and attitudes that are not open to discussion. Such a thinker cannot be reasoned with, since this process involves processing new input. If you feel as if you are talking to a brick wall, you are probably dealing with a closed mind thinker. However, being open minded does not mean that you should not stand by the truth as you know it, or that you must accept every point of view. Truth will w only illusion is threatened by the exchange of thought.
Do not tolerate ongoing and unproductive ambiguity. Most decisions that you face involve a degree of ambiguity, a gray area between the obvious black-or-white alternatives. This is not an argument for the tole it is a recommendation to exercise the power of thought to establish clarity. Ambiguity is often a symptom of sloppy, incomplete, or irrational thinking. When you experience such a state, it is time carefully to examine your premises, your principles, your knowledge, and the efficacy of your thinking process. Knowledge is the progressive retrieval of clarity from uncertainty and confusion.
Avoid the bandwagon. When a notion becomes popular, many people will jump on the bandwagon to embrace it. This is usually more a function of conformity than it is of critical thought. Look (and think) before you leap.
Distinguish between observation and inference, between established facts and conjectures that follow.
Withhold judgment until you are sure you have adequate information. It may be tempting to jump to conclusions, but you may end up in a hole you didn’t see. On the other hand, once you have adequate information, do not hesitate to make judgments based upon it. Judgment is part of the process of thinking, the application of your ability to come to conclusions about reality.
Maintain a sense of humor. You can’t think straight if everything seems like a matter of life and death to you. The ability to laugh at yourself and to see the humor in situations can often help you maintain clarity of thought and perspective. However, beware of laughter used as a weapon to denigrate what you value or as a p such uses require a serious response.
Cultivate intellectual curiosity. The world is full of things you don’t yet know about. Curiosity is the sign of a mind that is free and open to the wonders of reality, unafraid to face the unknown in order to grasp new knowledge. A curious thinker will explore new manners of looking at things and doing things. Learning can be an adventure of constant and exciting discovery if you cultivate a curious mind.
Don’t take things at face value. At an early age, most of us learn not to believe everything we hear. Imagine how disappointed you would be if you believed all the claims you hear in television advertising! This same principle should be applied to the other information that comes through the media, even what is presented as “news.” It is meant to be chewed (and sometimes spit out), not swallowed whole! Beware of packaging that hides the truth. Sometimes a big box with a fancy picture on the front bears little relationship to what is hidden inside. Open it up and take a look for yourself!
Challenge conventional wisdom. Every culture is based upon certain assumptions that go largely unquestioned. Galileo Galilei, the Italian astronomer and mathematician, was brought before the Inquisition because he dared to question the “truth” that the Earth was the center of the universe. Even today, members of the Flat Earth Society are said to believe that the world is as flat as a pancake! You cannot assume what is commonly accepted as truth is indeed true. Truth is established by rational thought, not by a public opinion poll or past practice.
Resist appeals to emotion. Emotion can sometimes cloud your reason. If you are angry or ecstatic, your thought processes will not work in the same way as when you are in a more dispassionate mood. Beware of situations in which your emotions are being intentionally stimulated (by flattery, fear, or anticipations while you are being asked to make a decision. It may be a strategy to manipulate the outcome.
Do not automatically accept authority. The appeal to authority is a favorite advertising gimmick: Hollywood stars, sports figures, and popular culture heroes are used to promote everything from breakfast cereal to underwear and underarm deodorant. We are encouraged to think that if he (or she) says this is great stuff, it must be! The fact that such an authority is getting paid millions of dollars for his or her endorsement might be enough to make you question him as an objective authority.
Beware others’ ego pleasing behavior. Flattery is a time honored method of persuasion. If someone starts with flattery, they may intend to end with your thinking or your money in their pocket. It’s not always easy to tell the difference between a sincere compliment and a statement designed to manipulate you.
Be aware of your own ego enhancing behavior. Decisions can often be influenced by how you want to appear to yourself or to others. If you are overly concerned about maintaining a given image, you may be doing and saying things that are not really in your own best interest. As you achieve authentic self esteem, behavior based on appearances often loses its appeal.
Maintain a sense of perspective. When you are in the midst of an important matter, it is easy to lose a balanced view of the situation. It can often be a good practice to “zoom out” and view the matter in a larger context. One method to establish perspective: On a scale of one to ten, with one being the death of a blade of grass and ten being worldwide nuclear annihilation, what does your situation rate? Is it truly as critical as it seems at the moment?
Be aware of unspoken rules. Sometimes how we behave is dictated by hidden rules. If you are not aware of such unspoken rules, you won’t have the knowledge you need to make a wise decision. If you are in a familiar situation, chances are you know the rules (for example: don’t rock the boat, don’t question the boss, don’t challenge the professor). If you are in an unfamiliar situation (or a foreign culture), it may pay to be unusually observant and to question those more familiar with the situation. This is not to say that you should be limited by such rules, only that an awareness of them is advisable.
Be aware of nonverbal behavior clues. The impact of verbal communication is less than half of the message you receive from others. The rest of the message is communicated by nonverbal behavior. You will be influenced by both. If someone is acting friendly while painfully squeezing your hand in a handshake, you may have reason to question what he or she are saying! The same would apply if someone is stretched back in his chair and yawning while telling you how interested he is in your ideas. The clearer your perception of the facts of the situation, the clearer your thinking will be.
When under pressure, stop and think. Impulsive decision making often results in poor decisions. As the pressure for a decision increases, the temptation to make an impulsive decision also increases. You may rationalize this by thinking that any decision is be this is rarely true. Indecision is often the result of poor decision making skills. Impulsiveness only assures that you’ll reap the consequences of poor decisions that much sooner!
See beyond labels and stereotypes. Labels and stereotypes are a type of mental shorthand that can facilitate thinking and communication. If you are in need of a four legged piece of furniture designed for sitting, it is easier to ask for a chair and to ignore the many possible variations of design and materials. However, if you are investigating a possible career choice, you should not be satisfied with a stereotypical description of the occupations involved you want to know exactly what it really means to be a police officer, brain surgeon, or financial analyst. Likewise, dealing with people from different backgrounds or cultures is seriously hampered by prejudicial stereotypes that obscure the truth.
Weed out negative self talk. Much of what passes for thinking is really self-talk–sub-vocal conversations you constantly hold with yourself. This self-talk often takes the form of critical judgments and attitudes about yourself. Your thinking skills may be undermined by self talk that conveys negative messages over and over again, reinforcing a negative self image (“I can’t do anything right,” “I’m just not as smart as everyone else”) or attitudes (“I better not trust anyone,” “School is a waste of time”). Unless this kind of negative thinking is challenged and replaced by more positive self talk, it will tend to influence your decisions in an undesirable manner. The fundamental element in such change is the cultivation of self esteem. Counseling is a good solution to this kind of problem.
Look for consistency. Ralph Waldo Emerson once wrote: “foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds.” A thoughtful consistency, however, is the hallmark of careful and thorough thinking. Consistency and logic are criteria that should be applied to whatever you consider. Inconsistency is often used to obscure the truth.
Practice empathy. There’s an Indian saying that you should walk a mile in another person’s moccasins before passing judgment. In other words, you should not judge others until you fully understand their situation. By practicing this type of empathy, you will decrease the likelihood of making snap judgments that you may later regret. You may also find that a little understanding facilitates a deeper insight into other people and their behavior. The deeper your insight into yourself and others, the wiser your decisions will be.
Take time to check the facts. If you don’t have the facts straight, your decisions are likely to be skewed. In important matters, you should try to obtain firsthand access to the relevant facts. If you are trying to make a career decision and want to know something about your occupational skills, it is better to take an aptitude test than to ask your buddies what they think “you’re good at.” Likewise, it is better to find out the nature of work for a given occupation, based on accepted references and worker interviews, than to rely on stereotypes that may be full of partial truths and significant omissions. Check the reliability of your information. Did it come from a reliable source? Can you find another source that confirms your information? If you can answer yes to these questions, you can be more confident about the facts you use as a basis for your decisions.
Check the validity of your information. Information may be reliable but not valid. Validity has to do with the relevance of the information to the context in which it is being applied. It may be a reliable fact that when you strike a match, fire will result–unless you are underwater or in the vacuum of outer space! Context is important!
Cultivate listening skills. When it comes to conversation, what you hear is what you get. Listening is another skill we tend to take for granted, but it is rarely utilized as effectively as we think. How many times have you been in the middle of a conversation and suddenly realized that the other person had asked you a question that you didn’t even hear? How often are you so preoccupied with your own thoughts in class that you tune out the instructor? It happens to us all, which illustrates the difficulty of practicing this seemingly simple skill. The better you listen, the more correct informa the more correct information you have, the better decisions you will make.
Be aware of illogical thinking. There are entire philosophy books devoted to logic and the manner in which it can be distorted. Stereotypes are often based on illogical thinking, applying specific characteristics in a universal manner without verifiable basis in fact, or assuming a causal connection between two unrelated events. Advertising commonly encourages illogical associations: beef is touted as “food for real people” (what do “unreal” people eat?), and white teeth or the right deodorant seem to guarantee a bevy of babes (or hunks) at your feet (Where’s the Crest?). It may seem obvious that such claims are ridiculous, but someone is paying big bucks for these commercials for a reason!
Heed your intuition. All of us have hunches about things at one time or another. These hunches are often the result of information that registers at a level other than conscious awareness. It’s like when you sense someone staring at you, only to look up and find it is true. There was no logical reason to believe someone was looking it you, but it somehow registered nevertheless. Intuition cannot take the place of logical thought, but it can be developed as a valuable supplement. By trying to be more aware of your intuitions, you can increase your sensitivity to this kind of information. As you learn to test it and to trust it, it can enhance your decision making skills.
如何批判创作推荐信RL？总所周知推荐RL对于留学生来说很重要，那么怎样写好留学推荐信RL就也是一个重点问题了，这篇文章就为大家介绍入境进行批判性写作推荐信RL。
写作以及需要天赋和技巧，但它也需要实践和反馈，以评估这种做法的结果。成功地批评创作需要知道什么是对写作很重要的，什么是对作家接受批判重要。下面的步骤提供了如何以批判创作他人的方向。
如果没有先被要求批评的工作。谁是最开放的有他们的工作被他人读取和评估的作家是那些谁提出要求。通常情况下，谁也无法处理反馈作家都不愿意把自己的工作出来批判。
了解作家期望什么样的批判。讨论什么样的反馈作家正在寻找您查看稿件之前。如果笔者告诉你，他或她已经遇到了麻烦写的手稿内的特定通道，集中你的上通行的努力。如果writer寻找与拼写，标点和语法的帮助，提供尽你的能力。
如果笔者遇到仅作为寻找自我中风，你可能想礼貌地拒绝做一个批判的要求。
饱读，最好是在写作的体裁。如果你在写作，比如是科幻小说的忠实读者，如果要求别人批评的科幻小说手稿的类型或区域背景的批判会更有效。如果你没有很好地阅读给定的流派，您可能仍然能够批判工作，为写作的整体素质，如果是那样的作家找什么要批评是问你。
能够写出相当好自己。作为饱读并能写的很好通常会手牵手，而不是自动。如果你经常混淆的词语，如“房客”和“宗旨，以”写不完整的句子没有正当理由，并圈点不规则，你可能不会去批判别人的写作的最佳人选。
但是，如果你写的很好，承认你的写作风格是没有必要写一个给定的故事或文章的唯一或最佳途径。你应该熟悉的几个写作风格和观点，以便有效地批判创作。
念稿子仔细地。读取手稿批判它需要读取更详细和深度比阅读乐趣。您正在阅读的内容，连贯，语法，标点和样式的文本。仔细阅读课文，做笔记，当您去，无论是在手稿的边缘或在另一张纸上。重新读取任何困难的通道，如果你有时间，整个手稿。
如果你正在阅读的文字处理文档的稿件，可以使用字处理程序的评论功能提出意见。
如果碰上你不明白一个字，看看它，无论是在硬拷贝字典或联机。同时查找包含在您有问题的稿件任何历史或科学信息。
满足您的批判手稿，而不是作家。批判中的注释应该是任“这一部分需要”或者“我不理解这句话，”不自然“你需要”。
与你的工作有什么总结开头。你认为这个故事国家是关于什么的作者试图用它来完成。这让笔者知道他或她如何能够故事的关键主题传达给你。
告诉笔者什么工作，为什么。慧眼识写的部分，哪些是你喜欢他们。指出作者的长处，结合具体的实例，如“我喜欢你的角色的细节，如描述她作为是她的母亲酷似给你的女主人公一样的中间名是她的母亲，除了”。同时指出事物笔者得到了“正确的”，似乎是他或她强区之外。
告诉笔者什么没有工作，为什么，以及提出如何解决它。正如描述的优势，提供以积极的方式细节。不要说：“这个词”说，“在这段话是弱，”没有作出解释;而是说：“这个词”说，“在这段话是弱，因为你已经建立的字符被吓坏了。你可能想使用单词’颤抖’代替。”
如果你不舒服的流派或写作风格，承认这一点，在你的不适可能对你的工作的看法产生影响的那些点。这将让笔者知道是否驳回您的意见或找另一个人比较熟悉的流派或写作风格的批评。
给笔者他或她需要引用纳入您的反馈时。更完成您的反馈意见，并更有效地将它呈现给作家，更容易和更容易，他或她将将其纳入未来的修订。你如何展示它取决于你是否口头提供反馈，以书面或电子。
如果你口头批评稿件，组织你想，一定要彻底覆盖它们的要点。指向的具体稿件的地方，并尽可能提供作家笔记的复印件。
如果你批评写作中的手稿（硬拷贝），查看您的清晰和一致的批评。给作家手稿的复印件与您的标记和意见，并有单独的反馈文件。
如果你的电子批评稿件，您可以在标记的手稿做一个“另存为”，接受新副本标记的变化，然后用不同但相关的名称保存它从原稿，如“ManuscriptCleanCopy”。如果你包括有关在电子邮件中评论稿件，切割和手稿到电子邮件的粘贴部分在适当情况下，如果发送丰富文本格式的电子邮件使用的是不同的文本颜色或字体。
How to Critique Creative Writing
Writing well requires talent and skill, but it also requires practice and feedback to evaluate the results of that practice. Critiquing creative writing successfully requires knowing what’s important to the writing and what’s important to the writer receiving the critique. The following steps offer direction in how to critique creative writing for others.
Don’t critique the work without first being asked to. The writers who are most open to having their work read and evaluated by others are those who ask for it. Usually, writers who can’t handle feedback aren’t willing to put their work out for critiquing.
Understand what kind of critique the writer expects. Discuss what kind of feedback the writer is looking for before you review the manuscript. If the writer tells you he or she has had trouble writing a particular passage within the manuscript, focus your efforts on that passage. If the writer is looking for help with spelling, punctuation, and grammar, provide that to the best of your ability.
If the writer comes across solely as looking for an ego stroke, you may want to politely decline the request to do a critique.
Be well-read, preferably in the genre of the writing. Your critique will be more effective if you have a background in the genre or area of the writing, such as being an avid reader of science fiction if asked to critique someone’s science fiction manuscript. If you aren’t well read a given genre, you may still be able to critique the work for the overall quality of the writing, if that’s what the writer looking to be critiqued is asking you for.
Be able to write reasonably well yourself. Being well-read and being able to write well usually go hand-in-hand, but not automatically. If you regularly confuse words such as “tenant” and “tenet,” write incomplete sentences without good reason, and punctuate irregularly, you’re probably not the best candidate to critique someone else’s writing.
However, if you do write well, recognize that your style of writing is not necessary the only or best way to write a given story or article. You should be familiar with several writing styles and points of view in order to critique creative writing effectively.
Read the manuscript over carefully. Reading a manuscript to critique it requires reading in more detail and depth than reading for pleasure. You’re reading the text for content, consistency, grammar, punctuation, and style. Read the text carefully, making notes as you go, either in the margins of the manuscript or on a separate piece of paper. Re-read any difficult passages and, if you have time, the entire manuscript.
If you’re reading the manuscript in a word processing document, you can use the word processing program’s comments feature to make comments.
If you run into a word you don’t understand, look it up, either in a hard-copy dictionary or online. Also look up any historical or scientific information included in the manuscript that you have questions about.
Address your critique to the manuscript, not to the writer. Comments within the critique should be in the nature of either “This section needs ?” or “I didn’t understand this sentence,” not “You need to.”
Begin with a summary of what you got from the work. State what you thought the story was about and what the author was trying to accomplish with it. This lets the writer know how well he or she was able to communicate the story’s key themes to you.
Tell the author what worked, and why. Identify what parts of the writing and what you liked about them. Point out the author’s strengths, with specific examples, such as “I liked the details in your characters, such as giving your heroine the same middle name as her mother, in addition to describing her as being a dead ringer for her mother.” Also point out things the author got “right” that seem to be outside his or her strong areas.
Tell the author what didn’t work, why, and suggest how to fix it. As with describing the strengths, provide specifics in a positive way. Don’t say, “This word ‘said’ in this passage is weak,” wi instead, say, “The word ‘said’ in this passage is weak because you’ve established that the character is frightened. You might want to use the word ‘quavered’ instead.”
If you’re not comfortable with the genre or writing style, acknowledge it in those points where your discomforts might have an impact on your view of the work. That will let the writer know whether to dismiss your comments or to look for a critique from another person more familiar with the genre or writing style.
Give the author what he or she needs to refer to when incorporating your feedback. The more complete your feedback, and the more effectively you present it to the writer, the easier and more likely he or she will be to incorporate it into future revisions. How you present it depends on whether you are providing feedback orally, in writing, or electronically.
If you’re critiquing the manuscript orally, organize the points you want to make and be sure to cover them thoroughly. Point to specific places in the manuscript where possible and provide the writer with a copy of your notes.
If you’re critiquing the manuscript in writing (hard copy), review your critique for clarity and consistency. Give the writer a copy of the manuscript with your markup and comments and a separate feedback document.
If you’re critiquing the manuscript electronically, you can do a “Save As” on the marked-up manuscript, accept the marked-up changes on the new copy, and then save it with a different but related name from the original manuscript, such as “ManuscriptCleanCopy.” If you’re including comments about the manuscript in the email, cut and paste sections of the manuscript into the email where appropriate, using a different text color or font if sending the email in rich text format.
学习的信息来源可以使网上和图书馆有效地搜索并没有那么复杂。通过学习形成有效的研究问题，规划出你的创业，探索可供选择，你可以使用的好来源，探索并支持与科研的位置开始。更多信息请参见第1步。
首先：形成一个研究问题
了解不同种类的研究可以进行。研究发生了，你积极寻求关于特定主题的信息的任何时间。你可以研究探索你不熟悉的话题，以及为你的演示文稿或研究论文提出要求提供证据。研究可以通过收集自己的数据，在线阅读，或使用以前的研究项目，以指导你的努力来收集。
当你在线阅读的探索性研究完成后，得到了专题的手最快的总结。假设你在美国是研究“肥胖”的一般话题。要探讨的话题，你可以用谷歌搜索启动，请阅读维基百科页面，并找到其他网站的条目让自己熟悉的话题。什么是与在美国的肥胖问题？什么论据正在作出的呢？还有什么其他科目都涉及到这个话题？健康和健身？快餐？什么是你兴趣进一步研究？在这方面的研究，你要找的事实。
写下你不知道是什么。一旦你探索一个话题有点，还是有很多你可能不知道，这是你可以使用的通过形成一个研究问题，以指导你的研究。开始问很多的问题，并写下来：当人们提及的“肥胖”，什么是他们指的是什么呢？什么时候开始？哪里？什么是它可能存在一些可能的原因是什么？
查找争论和对话。在每个主题有一个“问题”，危在旦夕。有一些争议，争议的东西的话题，这就是你想花时间研究什么。更小的，更窄，和更具体的话题，效果更佳。
肥胖在美国的话题可能过大。看看你自己的社区，州或地区。什么是统计？它是如何比其他地区？可以解释这是什么？为什么？如果你问和回答这些问题，你对你的方式以雄厚的研究课题。
其实问题不好好研究的课题，因为没有什么研究，但只是一个事实来查找。一个好的研究问题，比如，不会是“有多少人肥胖去世了吗？”但“如何肥胖杀人？”
问你希望与研究，以探索探测问题。你一直在网上和可能的探索打印您的主题后，你需要拿出一个坚实的研究问题，以帮助指导你的支持性研究。
“什么样的政策和态度，使我们在90年代中期的肥胖突然崛起在印第安纳？”将是一个很好的研究课题。它是在特定的位置，争议和话题的条款。这件事情可以证明。
让研究指导你的说法，而不是其他的方式。我们每个人都有的话题，特别是有争议的强烈的意见。它可以是很有诱惑力的只有寻求来源，这将验证您的意见，或将简单化的话题，而不是把它复杂化。当你做你的研究，找出各种各样的意见，参数和位置，并让自己组装强烈的研究，而不仅仅是你想听到的论点。
其次探索在线
瑟互联网进行探索性研究。根据您的话题，互联网可能是一个丰富的信息或意见和注释流的沼泽地区。它有可用的最新的信息即刻，但它也可能是困难的良好来源和坏源之间进行区分。
政府网站（那些在最终的.gov）的数据和定义的良好来源。中心疾病控制和预防的网站，例如，提供了大量有关在美国，这种疾病如何影响特定人群肥胖不错的数据，和肥胖的按区域细分。
非营利机构（网站，在.ORG结尾）也可以成为意见的良好来源。一般来说，企业将有一个“议程”，将目前各种信息备份自己的位置。这可能是在帮助你的研究好，还可以拥有对这些问题旋转了相当数量。
博客和留言板可以很好的得到人们的意见感，并有利于未来与你可以问自己一些问题的想法，但他们不支持的良好来源。他们不是很好的报价，换句话说。
利用互联网快速定义条款。肥胖是一种疾病？什么是我们通过调用它的一个“流行”呢？这些条款，你可以，也应该查查在线快速。通过定义你的条件，而且越来越熟悉的话题 – 成为它一个业余专家，其实 – 你将更加明智的，当你到了更多的技术种源，您需要使用您的支持研究。
使用维基作为资源，而不是作为一个源。其中一件关于维基（如wikiHow的！）伟大的事情是，在整篇文章中引用的源代码可以在页面的底部，你去探索自己。这些通常是更好的比维基本身的信息源，以及在页面的组织允许您使用它作为在这些源中的信息的摘要，而不是对本身的来源。
查找大量的文章和意见。当你在网上阅读，查找统计资料和数据的意见混合物，以及。它不一定有帮助的咆哮博客充满某人的有关学校午餐暂时保住孩子肥胖的一个阴谋生长激素阴谋，但可能有一些有启发你。什么是学校午餐的交易？什么研究已经完成？做更多的探索和找到类似的信息较大幅度的页面。
最后使用的库
跟一个图书管理员。信息在图书馆最有用的来源不是书。通常情况下，由馆员学生同时在计算机上的斗争不是20英尺以外，通过对不良信息和贫困来源困难的沼泽挖坐视不管。与他们交谈！他们是来帮忙的。
带上你的研究的问题，你做了这一点任何研究，以及你已经与你有任何特定的任务或项目的描述。如果你正在为一纸做研究，把分配表。
问前台进行研究馆员谁是随叫随到的学生咨询，或预约一下在一个特定领域的话题图书管理员。这些会议往往是非常有益的。你不会浪费时间去谈判艰难图书馆数据库，你一定会那种你觉得会为您的项目有用的信息。
研究的书籍，杂志，和信息数据库。在图书馆，你有更多的，你就会知道做什么用的信息。试着找只有最直接相关的信息。如果你正在苦苦寻找的良好来源，请优化搜索条件，并再次寻找。
显然书籍作出的话题良好的概述。如果你研究肥胖，你就可以找到长期研究研究，专家分析和观点对这个问题的书籍。
杂志和研究期刊将提供更多的专业化和技术主题，通常是在一个稍短的长度。他们是对的意见更轻和更重干的统计数据。
大多数大学图书馆使用JSTOR或按主题设有研究论文的学术数据库的一些变种。它可以是一个比较困难的数据库进行谈判，所以跟图书管理员求助如果您不确定。
尝试搜索字词的混合物。它可以是令人沮丧的，当你第一次得到在图书馆中试图找到直接关系到你的搜索信息的开始。学会有效地搜索和勤奋与你的努力将最终还清。改变你的搜索，周围使用你想要的引擎来寻找特定搜索的报价。如果您正在寻找有关肥胖的信息，特别是关系到学校午餐计划，您可以搜索：
“肥胖”，“学校午餐”
“学校午餐”
“垃圾食品在学校”
“夺宝肥胖”
“夺宝学校午餐”
“体重流行病”
“肥胖流行病”
不要读每一个字。学习快速读取和重要和上主题的信息有效地脱脂往往是光滑的研究项目和一个令人沮丧之一之间的差。如果你要深入到非常复杂的技术话题，很多研究都可以干，无聊透顶。学习快速洽谈来源将让您的工作更加容易。
读出的抽象，如果源有一个，或读引入到源以确保主题适用。如果它似乎外围，把它放回去，并忘掉它。你不是做研究垫的书目，你这样做，以支持你的论点和探讨的话题。
如果你找到一个很好的来源，快进至年底，并阅读摘要。大部分的技术研究为基础的来源“肉”的将用于展示自己的研究，而你主要关心的是结果和参数本身。通常情况下，你可以逃脱只有当你阅读智能阅读15或20页的研究报告或书几段。
如果源提供了良好的支持，阅读文章更紧密地得到论证和证据的意识。用作者自己的研究，以寻求更多的资源。
做好笔记，所以你以后可以找到的信息。没有什么比让一个研究项目的写作阶段在不能够找到在研究堆你收集特定报价或统计更糟。保持组织，而你研究，并采取认真记录是指更高版本。
记卡库，并记下具体报价在卡的一侧，在卡的另一侧的书目信息（标题，作者，出版信息，以及URL如适用）。
不要使用来源压倒自己。在图书馆的好天气不一定涉及堆放的500页的书，你将永远不会读山。研究智能，承担信息的最重要的部分笔记，并使用资源管理的数量，使你的论点，并为你的论点。
一些学生认为更多的资源，使研究论文更好。它没有。理想情况下，你想要的“自己的”声音的平衡 – 这意味着研究 – 和你的声音，你的论点。一个好的研究项目使用的研究，以形成支持一个参数，而不是像一个口技假人，重复你在阅读的长度信息。
Learning to search effectively for sources of information online and at the library doesn’t have to be complicated. By learning to form effective research questions, plan out your venture, and explore the options available, you can get started using good sources to explore and support a position with research. See Step 1 for more information.
首先：Forming a Research Question
Learn about the different kinds of research you can conduct. Research happens any time you actively seek out information about a specific topic. You can research to explore a topic you’re unfamiliar with, as well as to provide evidence for claims you’re making in a presentation or research essay. Research can be collected by gathering your own data, reading online, or using previous research projects to guide your efforts.
Exploratory research is done when you read online, getting the quickest summary of the topic at hand. Say you were researching the general topic of “obesity” in the United States. To explore the topic, you might start with a Google search, read the wikipedia page, and find other web entries to get yourself familiar with the topic. What’s the issue with obesity in the US? What arguments are being made about it? What other subjects are related to this topic? Health and fitness? Fast-food? What are you interested in researching further? In this kind of research, you’re looking for facts.
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