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正在加载中，请稍后...106L.Duerto,K.McClay/Mar；overpressuredzonesabovei；obliquecontraction(NWCSE；Higgs,R.,2007.Trinidad-V；
106L.Duerto,K.McClay/MarineandPetroleumGeology28(overpressuredzonesaboveitmakemorefavorabletheoptionofthethrusting.Summarizing,localizedzonesofoverpressuredshalesmayallowustomaketwoproposals:1)overpressuringoccursatdepthanor2)Faultsarethe?uidconduitsfor?uidizedmudintoupperlevels(Fig.26).Additionally,theTonorosands,thatwasthetargetofthewell,couldnotbeenreachedduringthedrillingduetothatthesands(asthemodelpredicts)mustbelocatedbetweenthefaultsF1andF2(Fig.26)inagraben-likesystemandnotextendedregionallyaswassupposed.Distributionofthesandswasconditionedbytheshaledeformationinthearea.Inthismodel,thefaultscontrolthedepocenterdistributionwhilethefootwallblockisupliftedproductofstackinginaprocessnamedherebreak-throughnormalfaults(initiallyproposedforthrustingprocessesbySuppeandMedwe-deff,1990andlaterexpadedbyThorbojornsenandDunne,1997MostinternalstructuresofindividualanticlinespresentintheEVFBconsistofimbricatedstructuresoverlaidbythickgrowthstrata(e.g.Figs.10,21and26).Theonlyindicationofrealchaoticshalemobilizationthatcouldberelatedtotheclassicalconceptofdiapirislocatedinspeci?careasofthefold-belt,especiallyatthebaseandtopandbetweenadjacentthrustsheets.Althoughthedeformationinsidetheshalemaybecompressive,theeffectobservedinsupra-shaleunitsmaybeextensiveashasbeensuggestedinthispaper.Theprocessisverysimilartotheonedescribeforthrust-sheetsevolutionwherethefoldisproducedbeforebeingaffectedbyfracture(SuppeandMedwedeff,1990;ThorbojornsenandDunne,1997).Inourcaseweareproposingthatbreak-throughtakesplacealsounderanormalfaultduetothesedimentaryload.Ingeneralweproposethatshaledeformsintwomainevolutionarystages:StageI,foldingandrestrictedbasinformationThisstagecorrespondstotheeffectofasedimentaryloaddepositedatthefoothillsofthemountainfront(middleMFig.12,growthI;Fig.15,growthII;Figs.25cand27a,A1).Thesedi-mentaryloaddepositedatthefoothillscontemporaneouslywiththecontractionofthesystem(A1,Fig.27a)producedtheformationoftwoproto-basinsdividedbyafoldformedattheforeland:1)arestrictedbasindepocentrebetweenaforelandfoldandthemoun-tainfrontand2)anopenedbasinborderedbytheforelandfold.Itisproposedthatthesedimentaryload,fromhinterlandtoforeland,mayhavein?uencedthevergenceoftheforelandfold(towardstheforeland)(Fig.27a).Underacontinuoussedimentaryin?uence,theresultingmorphologyabovetheshaleisthewedgingofthegrowthstratatowardstheforelandineachsideoftheforelandfold(Fig.27a).AttheStageI,althoughtheshallowsystemmayhavesufferedextension,deepintotheshaleunittakesplacelistriccontractionalfaultswithforelandvergence(Figs.7,12,13,15,26,18cand27a).Theresultofthisprocessimpliestheredistributionofover-pressured?uidsfromthefoothillstowardstheforeland(Figs.6,10,20,26,18cand27a).StageII,‘‘break-throughnormalfaults’’AsDuertoandMcClay(2009)havemodeled,sedimentationaffectsstructuralevolution.Ifweconsiderthatinternaldeforma-tionintheshalemaybetheproductmainlyofthrusting(althoughoverpressured?uidsmobilizationalsotakesplace),wecanapplytheprincipleproposedinthereferredpapertothedeformationoftheCarapitashales.Inthecaseoflowsedimentinputabovetheincipientthrusting(lowerthan1/3ofthetotalofthepre-tectonicductileunitthickness),thrustswillexhibitlongdisplacementdeformation(LDBT).Neverthelessinthecaseofhighsedimentinputabovethethrusts,theywillevolveasshortdisplacementthrust(SDBT).Ifweapplythismodeltotheforeland-fold-and-thrustbelt,thepre-tectonicunitmaybeassociatedtotheshale(CarapitaFm.).Blindthrustsmaybeproducedinthecoreoftheshaleunitupliftingthesyntectoniclayers(LasPiedrasandMesaFms.).Inthiscasethetotalcolumn(ofshale)is4km.Astherestrictedbasinisprogres-sively?lled,increasesthethicknessofthesyntectonicunitsabovetheshale.LasPiedrasFm.,depositedabovetheshalehasamaximumreportedthicknessof1370m(Jam,1997)whichcorrespondtomorethan1/3oftheshale.So,thissedimentationmaytriggerthestackingoftheSDBTinsidetheshaleattheanticlineareas(Fig.18d).Theanticlineareasrepresentthefootwallofnormalfaults.Theygrowthvertically,productofthestacking,andadditionallytheyaredisplacedsouthwardproductofcontraction(latemiddleMiocenetoLowerPliocene).Theeffectistheprogressiveclockwiserotationoftheforelandsideofthestructurescontemporaneouswithdivergentanddown-bendedgrowthstratatowardsthefaults(GrowthI,Fig.10;GrowthII,IIIandIV,Fig.20;GrowthII,Figs.21and27b,Figs.18d,27band28b).Themorphologyofthesystemisverydifferentfromlistricnormalfaultswheresedimentationencompassesextension,andgrowthstrataisbendedupwards(Fig.28).Wesuggestthatthedepocentre,asitisprogressively?lled,migratestowardsthebasin(Figs.18dand27b).??Post‘‘Break-Through’’processesInthecaseoftheEVB,thedeformationdidnotendthere,andcontinuedinanewcontractionalprocessthatproducedtheinversionofthepreviousformedstructures.Duringthisstage,therateofshorteningincreaseddramaticallyproducingtheinversionofthebreakthroughnormalfaultsdevelopedduringthepreviousepisodeofdeformation(PFigs.18eand27c).Theresultinggrowthstrataoftheshalefoldatthisstageshowsboth?anksthinningtowardstheanticlinecrest(GrowthVinFigs.10C21).Atthisstage,anticlinestructuresmaypresentcrestalfaultsthatwillfunctionas?uidconduitsfortheoverpressuredshalesdeepinthecoreofthestructure(Fig.27c).AnotherprocessthattakesplaceintheEVBandaffectstheshalestructurescorrespondtothepresenceoftheNWCSEfaults.TheformationoftheNWCSEfaultsabovetheshaleunitplaysanimportantroleinthemigrationandaccumulationofHCinthesupra-shalelayers.NWCSEtrendingfaultsareproducedbystrainpartitioning,similartothatproposedfortheCaribbeanplate,intheMaturinBasinandseemtohaveanimportantrolein?uidmigra-tioninthearea(e.g.,Escalonaetal.,2007;DuertoandMcClay,2007;EscalonaandMann,etal.,inpress).Severaloil?eldsarelocatedclosetothesefeatures,forexample:theQuiamare,Tonoro,GuanocoLakeandPedernalesoil?elds(Fig.29).Therelationshipbetweenthesefaultsandtheoil?eldsintheareaisrelevantwhenconsideringhydrocarbonprovincesastheymayconnectsourcerockandreservoir.Thepresenceofdifferentcrudetypesintheseoil?eldssuggeststhatalsothesefaults(NWCSEtrendingfaults)connectdifferentlevelsofsourcerockwiththereservoirpositionedabovetheshales.ThePedernalesoilcomesfromsalinetohyper-salinesourcerocks(Stoufer,1998;Summaetal.,2003)whereastheGuanocolakeoils,althoughhighlybio-degradedprobablycomefrommarinesourcerocks.TheQuiamareoilsarealsofromamarinesourcerockbutalsoshowsometerrestrialin?uence(Stoufer,1996)whereasoilsfromtheTonoro?eldhaveastrongterrestrialin?u-encewithraremarineindicators(Stoufer,1998).Undertheprocessesdescribedhere,sandsdepositedintheminibasinsareborderedbyshalestructuresthatrepresentthelateralsealsfortheHC.Ifadditionally,itispresentinthesystemL.Duerto,K.McClay/MarineandPetroleumGeology28(107obliquecontraction(NWCSEfaults),thesestructuresmaycontainthebestareasforexploringhydrocarboninshalepronebasins.7.ConclusionsAlthoughtheinterpretationoftheinternalshaledeformationmechanismshasbeenamatterofcontroversialdebateinthelastyears,ithasbeenshownherethatthemainmechanismofdefor-mationisnotdiapirism.Diapirismwasconceivedasanintrusionlateralorverticalofductilematerialintotheoverlyingstrata.Theterm,applieddirectlyfromsaltstudies,argumentthatshalediapirsareareasoflowsignal-to-noiseseismicimage,possiblyindirectlyassociatedtooverpressuredshales.Inthispaperithasbeenshownthattheinternalshaledefor-mationisconsideredtobedrivenmainlybydevelopmentofshalethrustsheetsaccompaniedby?uidexpulsion.Inthestudiedcasehere,?uidsareaccumulatedincertainareasinsidetheshaleunit(mainlyanticlines)creatinglocalizedoverpressuring.Onlywhencontractiontakesplace,?uidsareinjectedintotheoverlyingstratathroughfaultsproducingmudvolcanoes.Sotheproposedtectonicmodeldiffersfromthetheoreticaldiapiricprocessandindicatesadifferentmechanismofdeformation.Theconceptsexposedherecanalsobeappliedtoothertypesofbasinswithvariablesedimentaryloads,whereseismicqualityleadsgenerallytoover-simpli?cationoftheshaletectonicsproblem.TheEasternVenezuelanBasinforeland-fold-and-thrust-beltconsistoflateMiocene-Pleistoceneshalestructuresthatformoverlapping,east-west-trendingandslightlyopentothenorthconvexanticlinalfoldsthatextendformorethan200kilometersandaretypically40kilometerswide.Thestudiedstructuresshowthatbasinsdevelopedaboveshaleunitsformsandendmemberboundedbybreakthroughnormalfolds.Theyresultsfromthecombinationoftwofactors:1)thepresenceofahighsedimentaryrateintheforelandcontempora-neand2)themigrationofoverpressuringconditionstotheforeland.Thismigrationofoverpressured?uidsproducestheriseofanticlinalareasduetostackinginsidetheshaleunitandnormalfracturingdippingtowardsthehinterland.biningreservoirsandlateralseals.InthecaseoftheEVB,thepost-breakthroughepisodeexhibitsaperiodofobliquecontractioninwhichthePiritalthrustsandtheNWCSEfaultsaretheproductofstrainpartitioninginthearea.TheNWCSEfaultsarelinkedtohydrocarbonaccumulationsintheareaandarestilltobeexploredintheLaPicaBasin.AcknowledgmentsWewouldliketothanksincerelytoPDVSAforallowingthepublicationofthepresentdata.Specialthankstotheeditorsofthisvolumefortheirpatienceandsupport.ReferencesAquino,R.,Arreaza,C.,2005.SedimentologiaygeoquimicadelaunidadconcapasrojasquesubyacealCretacicoTemprano(FormacionBarranquin),estadoMon-agas.Geos,UCV,Caracas,3rd.CongresoLatinoamericanodeSedimentologia,Belem,Para,Brasil.37,pp.66.Aquino,R.,2006.Formacio′nMacal(Propuesta).In:LexicoEstratigra?codeVenezuelaonline,/lexico/.Aslan,A.,Warne,A.,Guevara,E.,Smyth,R.,Raney,J.,Gibeaut,J.,2001.Mudvolca-noesoftheOrinocoDelta,EasternVenezuela.Geomorphology41(4),323C336.AveLallemant,H.,1997.Transpression,displacementpartitioning,andexhumationintheeasternCaribbean/SouthAmericanplateboundaryzone.Tectonics16(2),272C289.Baamonde,J..1997.FormacionMesa.CodigoEstratigra?codelascuencasPetrolerasVenezolanasinwww.pdv.net/lexico.Babb,S.,Mann,P.,1999.StructuralandsedimentarydevelopmentofaNeogenetranspressionalplateboundarybetweentheCaribbeanandSouthAmericanplatesinTrinidadandtheGulfofParia.CaribbeanBasins,SedimentaryBasinsoftheWorld4,495C557.Bartok,P.,1993.Pre-breakupgeologyoftheGulfofMexicoCCaribbean:itsrelationtoTriassicandJurassicriftsystemsoftheregion.Tectonics12,441C459.Brown,K.,Westbrook,G.,1988.MuddiapirismandsubcretionintheBarbadosrid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