fatmusicbear被禁了吗怎么没了
点击联系发帖人
时间：2016-12-09 12:46
《熊太》来只外国熊 个人很喜欢哦_熊太吧_百度贴吧
&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&签到排名：今日本吧第个签到，本吧因你更精彩，明天继续来努力！
本吧签到人数：0可签7级以上的吧50个
本月漏签0次！成为超级会员，赠送8张补签卡连续签到：天&&累计签到：天超级会员单次开通12个月以上，赠送连续签到卡3张
关注：1,521贴子：
《熊太》来只外国熊 个人很喜欢哦
人生路漫漫，总有那么一...
你最萌哪一对cp？有兴趣...
准不准你说了算哦
长镜头的调度，场景的打...
晒明星剧组盒饭啥样？
真是一部良心剧！
人鱼热恋中？冯绍峰 郭...
你最期待哪部呢？
中国文化上下五千年，不...
这道菜很简单精致做起来...
单身无罪，出来受虐就是...
如果世界上真有轮回 那...
为客户提供快捷安全的数据库 数据恢复服务
都说白人的弟弟比黄种人的壮，看来也不尽然啊
可以关联很多网站
贴吧热议榜
使用签名档&&
保存至快速回贴From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
"Ursine" redirects here. For the village, see . For other uses, see .
Ursidae. Bears are classified as , or doglike carnivorans. Although only eight
of bears are extant, they are widespread, appearing in a wide variety of
throughout the
and partially in the . Bears are found on the
of , , , and . Common characteristics of modern bears include large bodies with stocky legs, long snouts, small rounded ears, shaggy hair,
paws with five nonretractile claws, and short tails.
is mostly , and the
feeds almost entirely on , the remaining six species are
with varied diets. With the exception of
individuals and mothers with their young, bears are typically . They may be
and have an excellent . Despite their heavy build and awkward gait, they are adept runners, climbers, and swimmers. Bears use shelters, such as caves and logs, most species occupy their dens during the winter for a long period of , up to 100 days.
Bears have been hunted since they have been used for
and other forms of entertainment, such as being . With their powerful physical presence, they play a prominent role in , , and other cultural aspects of various human societies. In modern times, bears have come under pressure through encroachment on their habitats and illegal trade in bear parts, including the Asian
market. The
lists six bear species as
or , and even
species, such as the , are at risk of
in certain countries. The poaching and international trade of these most threatened populations are prohibited, but still ongoing.
The English word "bear" comes from
bera and belongs to a family of names for the bear in , such as Swedish , also used as a first name, that originate from an adjective meaning "brown".
Bear taxon names such as
come from the ancient Greek word ?ρκτο? (arktos), meaning bear, as do the names "" and "", from the
, the "Great Bear", prominent in the northern sky.
Bear taxon names such as Ursidae and Ursus come from Latin Ursus/Ursa, he-bear/she-bear. The female first name "Ursula", originally derived from a Christian 's name, means "little she-bear" (diminutive of Latin ursa). In Switzerland, the male first name "Urs" is especially popular, while the name of the canton and city of
is derived from B?r,
for bear. The Germanic name
(including Bernhardt and similar forms) means "bear-brave", "bear-hardy", or "bold bear". The Old English name
is a , "bee-wolf", for bear, in turn meaning a brave warrior.
The family Ursidae is one of nine families in the suborder , or "doglike" carnivores, within the
. Bears' closest living relatives are the , , and . Modern bears comprise eight species in three subfamilies:
(monotypic with the ),
(monotypic with the ), and
(containing six species divided into one to three genera, depending on the authority). Nuclear chromosome analysis show that the
of the six ursine bears is nearly identical, with each having 74 , whereas the giant panda has 42 chromosomes and the spectacled bear 52. These smaller numbers can be explained by the fusing of some chromosomes, and the banding patterns on these match those of the ursine species, but differ from those of procyonids, which supports the inclusion of these two species in Ursidae rather than in , where they had been placed by some earlier authorities.
The earliest members of Ursidae belong to the extinct subfamily Amphicynodontinae, including
to early middle , 38–18 ) and the slightly younger Allocyon (early , 34–30 Mya), both from North America. These animals looked very different from today's bears, being small and raccoon-like in overall appearance, and diets perhaps more similar to that of a badger. Parictis does not appear in Eurasia and Africa until the Miocene. It is unclear whether late-Eocene ursids were also present in Eurasia, although faunal exchange across the
may have been possible during a major sea level low stand as early as the late Eocene (about 37 Mya) and continuing into the early Oligocene. European genera morphologically are very similar to Allocyon, and to the much younger American
(about 18 Mya), are known from the Oligocene, including Amphicticeps and .
The raccoon-sized, dog-like
is the oldest-known member of the subfamily , which first appeared during the middle Oligocene in Eurasia about 30 Mya ago. The subfamily includes the younger genera
(20–15 Mya), and
(15–7 Mya). A Cephalogale-like species gave rise to the genus
during the early Oligocene (30–28 Mya); this genus proliferated into many species in Asia and is ancestral to all living bears. Species of Ursavus subsequently entered North America, together with Amphicynodon and Cephalogale, during the early Miocene (21–18 Mya). Members of the living lineages of bears diverged from Ursavus between 15 and 20 Mya ago, likely via the species Ursavus elmensis. Based on genetic and morphological data, the Ailuropodinae (pandas) were the first to diverge from other living bears about 19 Mya ago, although no fossils of this group have been found before about 5 Mya.
The New World short-faced bears (Tremarctinae) differentiated from Ursinae following a dispersal event into North America during the mid-Miocene (about 13 Mya). They
(≈1 Ma) following formation of the . Their earliest fossil representative is
in North America (~ 10–2 Ma). This genus is probably the direct ancestor to the
(genus Arctodus), the
(Arctotherium), and the spectacled bears, Tremarctos, represented by both an extinct North American species (), and the lone surviving representative of the Tremarctinae, the South American spectacled bear (T. ornatus).
(Ursus spelaeus)
The subfamily Ursinae experienced a dramatic proliferation of taxa about 5.3–4.5 Mya ago, coincident with major e the first members of the genus
appeared around this time. The
is a modern survivor of one of the earliest lineages to diverge during this radiation event (5.3 Mya); it took on its peculiar morphology, related to its diet of termites and ants, no later than by the early Pleistocene. By 3–4 Mya ago, the species Ursus minimus appears in the fossil record of E apart from its size, it was nearly identical to today's . It is likely ancestral to all bears within Ursinae, perhaps aside from the sloth bear. Two lineages evolved from U. minimus: the black bears (including the , the Asian black bear, and the ); and the brown bears (which includes the ). Modern
evolved from U. minimus via , which itself is ancestral to the extinct
. Species of Ursinae have migrated repeatedly into North America from Eurasia as early as 4 Mya during the early Pliocene. The polar bear is the most recently evolved species and descended from the brown bear around 400,000 years ago.
The bears form a
within the Carnivora. The
is not a bear but a musteloid. The
is based on
of six genes in Flynn, 2005.
      
      
   
Other musteloids
of extant bear species is shown in a cladogram based on complete
sequences from Yu et al., 2007. The giant panda, followed by the spectacled bear are clearly the oldest species. The relationships of the other species are not very well resolved, though the polar bear and the brown bear form a close grouping.
Extant species are shown in bold, extinct taxa are marked +.
Family Ursidae
+ Ailurarctos lufengensis
+ Ailurarctos yuanmouenensis
lower jaws
– giant panda
+ Plionarctos edensis
+ Plionarctos harroldorum
(spectacled bears)
– spectacled bear
– Florida spectacled bear
+ Arctodus simus – giant short-faced bear
+ Arctodus pristinus
restoration
+ Arctotherium angustidens
+ Arctotherium bonariense
+ Arctotherium brasilense
+ Arctotherium latidens
+ Arctotherium tarijense
+ Arctotherium vetustum
+ Arctotherium wingei
+ Ursavus brevirhinus
+ Ursavus depereti
+ Ursavus elmensis
+ Ursavus pawniensis
+ Ursavus primaevus
+ Ursavus tedfordi
+ Indarctos anthraciti
+ Indarctos arctoides
+ Indarctos atticus
+ Indarctos nevadensis
+ Indarctos oregonensis
+ Indarctos salmontanus
+ Indarctos vireti
+ Indarctos zdanskyi
+ Agriotherium inexpetans
+ Agriotherium schneideri
+ Agriotherium sivalensis
– sloth bear
– sun bear
– Asian black bear
– American black bear
– brown bear
– polar bear
– cave bear
+ , MacFarlane's bear (; possibly a hybrid)
+ Kolponomos clallamensis
+ Kolponomos newportensis
Polar bear (right) and sun bear, the largest and smallest species respectively.
Bears include the most massive extant terrestrial members of the order Carnivora. Polar bears weigh up to 1,600 lb (730 kg). The smallest are the sun bears of Asia, which weigh up to 150 lb (68 kg). Body weight varies throughout the year in bears of temperate and arctic climates, as they build up fat reserves in the summer and autumn and lose weight during the winter. Head-and-body length can range from 150 cm (59 in) in sun bears to 244 cm (96 in) in polar bears.
Unlike most other Carnivora, bears have
feet. Drawing by , 1866
Bears are generally bulky and robust animals with short tails. They are
with regard to size, with the males being larger. Larger species tend to show increased levels of sexual dimorphism in comparison to smaller species. Relying as they do on strength rather than speed, bears have relatively short limbs with thick bones to support their bulk. The
are correspondingly massive. The limbs are much straighter than those of the big cats as there is no need for them to flex in the same way due to the differences in their gait. The strong forelimbs are used to catch prey, to excavate dens, to dig out burrowing animals, to turn over rocks and logs to locate prey, and to club large creatures.
Despite being , bears can stand and sit as humans do.
Unlike most other land carnivorans, bears are . They distribute their weight toward the hind feet, which makes them look lumbering when they walk. They are capable of bursts of speed but soon tire, and as a result mostly rely on ambush rather than the chase. Bears can stand on their hind feet and sit up straight with remarkable balance. Their front paws are flexible enough to grasp fruit and leaves. Bears' non-retractable claws are used for digging, climbing, tearing, and catching prey. The claws on the front feet are larger than those on the back and may be a hindrance black bears are the most arboreal of the bears, and have the shortest claws. Pandas are unique in having a bony extension on the wrist of the front feet which acts as a thumb, and is used for gripping bamboo shoots as the animals feed.
Most mammals have
hair, with each individual hair shaft having bands of colour corresponding to two different types of
pigment. Bears however have a single type of melanin and the hairs have a single colour throughout their length, apart from the tip which is sometimes a different shade. The coat consists of long guard hairs, which form a protective shaggy covering, and short dense hairs which form an insulating layer trapping air close to the skin. The shaggy coat helps maintain body heat during winter hibernation and is shed in the spring leaving a shorter summer coat. Polar bears have hollow, translucent guard hairs which gain heat from the sun and conduct it to the dark-coloured skin below. They have a thick layer of blubber for extra insulation, and the soles of their feet have a dense pad of fur. Other than the bold black-and-white pelage of the panda, bears tend to be uniform in colour, although some species may have markings on the chest or face.
Bears have small rounded ears so as to minimise heat loss, but both their hearing and sight are not particularly acute. Unlike many other carnivores they have , perhaps to help them distinguish ripe nuts and fruits. They are unique among carnivores in not having touch-sensitive
on the muzzle, however they have an excellent , better than that of the
(Canidae), or possibly any other mammal. They use smell for signalling to each other (either to warn off rivals or detect mates) and for finding food. Smell is the principal sense used by bears to locate most of their food, and they have excellent memories which helps them to relocate places where they have found food before.
Sloth bear skull
of bears are massive, providing anchorage for the powerful
jaw muscles. The
are large but mostly used for display, and the
teeth flat and crushing. Unlike most other members of the Carnivora, bears have relatively undeveloped
teeth, and their teeth are adapted for a diet that includes a significant amount of vegetable matter. Considerable variation occurs in
even within a given species. This may indicate bears are still in the process of evolving from a mainly meat-eating diet to a predominantly herbivorous one. Polar bears appear to have secondarily re-evolved carnassial-like cheek teeth, as their diets have switched back towards carnivory. Sloth bears lack lower central incisors and use their protusible lips for sucking up the termites on which they feed. The general dental formula for living bears is: 3.1.2–4.23.1.2–4.3. The structure of the
of bears appears to be the most
of the caniforms. They possess air pouches connected to the
their vocalisations.
Bears have a fairly simple digestive system typical for carnivorans, with a single stomach, short undifferentiated intestines and no . Even the herbivorous giant panda still has the digestive system of a carnivore, as well as carnivore-specific genes. Its ability to digest
is ascribed to the microbes in its gut. Bears must spend much of their time feeding in order to gain enough nutrition from plant matter. The panda, in particular, spends 12–15 hours a day feeding.
is the only species found in South America.
Further information:
Bears are found in sixty countries primarily in the Northern Hemisphere and are concentrated in Asia, North America, and Europe. An exception is native to South America, it inhabits the . The sun bear's range extends below the equator in Southeast Asia. The , a subspecies of the brown bear, was the only bear native to . It was distributed in North Africa from Morocco to Libya, but it became extinct around the 1870s. The most widespread species is the brown bear, which occurs from Western Europe eastwards through Asia to the western areas of North America. The American black bear is restricted to North America, and the polar bear is restricted to the Arctic Sea. All the remaining species of bear are Asian. They occur in a range of habitats which include tropical lowland rainforest, both coniferous and broadleaf forests, prairies, steppes, montane grassland, alpine scree slopes, Arctic tundra and in the case of the polar bear, . Bears may dig their dens in hillsides or use caves, hollow logs and dense vegetation for shelter.
Asian black bears during aggressive encounter
Brown and American black bears are generally , meaning that they are active for the most part during the day, though they may forage substantially by night. Other species may be , active at night, though female sloth bears with cubs may feed more at daytime to avoid competition from conspecifics and nocturnal predators. Bears are overwhelmingly solitary and are considered to be the most asocial of all the Carnivora. Liaisons between breeding bears are brief, and the only times bears are encountered in small groups are mothers with young or occasional seasonal bounties of rich food (such as salmon runs). With their acute sense of smell, bears can locate carcasses from several kilometres away. They use
to locate other foods, encounter mates, avoid rivals and recognise their cubs.
Sloth bear rubbing against tree
Bears produce a number of vocal and non-vocal sounds. Tongue-clicking and grunting many be made in cordial situations while moaning, huffing, sorting or blowing air is made when an individual is stressed. Barking is produced during times of alarm, excitement or to give away the animal's position. Warning sounds include jaw-clicking and lip-popping, while teeth-chatters, bellows, growls and roars are made in aggressive encounters. Cubs may squeal, bawl, bleat or scream when in distress and make motor-like humming when comfortable or nursing.
Bears sometimes communicate with visual displays such as , which exaggerates the individual's size. The chest markings of some species may add to this intimidating display. Staring is an aggressive act and the facial markings of spectacled bears and giant pandas may help draw attention to the eyes during
encounters. Individuals may approach each other by stiff-legged walking with the head lowered.
between bears is asserted by making a frontal orientation, showing the , muzzle twisting and neck stretching. A subordinate may respond with a lateral orientation, by turning away and dropping the head and by sitting or lying down. Fights may occur and older males may have extensive , which suggests that the maintenance of these hierarchies is intense.
Bears may mark territory by rubbing against trees and other objects which may serve to spread their scent. This is usually accompanied by clawing and biting the object. Bark may be spread around to draw attention to the marking post. Pandas are known to mark objects with urine and a waxy substance from their anal glands. Polar bears leave behind their scent in their tracks which allow individuals to keep track of one another in the vast Arctic wilderness.
feeding on bamboo. This species is mostly herbivorous.
Most bears have diets of more plant than animal matter and are completely opportunistic omnivores. At the extremes are the almost entirely herbivorous giant panda and the mostly carnivorous polar bear. However, all bears feed on any food source that becomes seasonally available. For example, Asiatic black bears in
consume large numbers of acorns when these are most common, and switch to
at other times of the year.
When foraging for plants, bears choose to eat them at the stage when they are at their most nutritious and digestible, typically avoiding older ,
and leaves. Knowing when plants are ripe for eating is a learned behaviour. In autumn, some bear species forage large amounts of naturally
fruits, which affects their behaviour. Smaller bears climb trees to obtain
(edible reproductive parts, such as acorns). Such masts can be very important to the diets of these species, and mast failures may result in long-range movements by bears looking for alternative food sources. The panda's diet is over 99% bamboo, of 30 different species. Its strong jaws are adapted for crushing these tough plants. Bamboo leaves contain the hi stems have less.
can make up to 50% of the diet of the spectacled bear, which also has strong jaws to bite them open.
Brown bear feeding on infrequent, but predictable,
migrations
The sloth bear, though not as specialised as polar bears and the panda, has lost several front teeth usually seen in bears, and developed a long, suctioning tongue to feed on the , , and other burrowing
they favour. At certain times of the year, these insects can make up 90% of their diets. Sun bears use their long tongues to lick up insects and honey. Fish are an important source of food for some species, and brown bears in particular gather in large numbers at salmon runs. Typically, a bear plunges into the water and seizes a fish with its jaws or front paws. The preferred parts to eat are the brain and eggs. Small mammals like
and rabbit are often eaten. The brown bear and both species of black bears sometimes take large ungulates, such as
and , mostly the young and weak. The polar bear preys on , such as seals, stalking them from the ice or breaking into their dens. They primarily eat the highly digestible blubber. Predatory behaviour in bears is typically taught to the young by the mother.
Bears are prolific
and , stealing food
from rodents, and carcasses from other predators. For hibernating species, weight gain is important as it provides nourishment during winter dormancy. A brown bear can eat 41 kg (90 lb) of food and gain 2–3 kg (4.4–6.6 lb) of fat a day prior to entering its den.
American black bears mating
The mating system of bears has variously been described as a form of ,
and . During the breeding season, males take notice of females in their vicinity and females become more tolerant of males. A male bear may visit a female continuously over a period of several days or weeks, depending on the species, to test her reproductive state. During this time period, males try to prevent rivals from interacting with their mate. Courtship may be brief, although in some Asian species, courting pairs may engage in wrestling, hugging, mock fighting and vocalising. , which can last up to 30 minutes depending on the species.
mother nursing her cub
typically lasts 6–9 months, including , and litter size numbers up to four cubs. Giant pandas may give birth to twins but they can only suckle one young and the other is left to die. In northern living species, birth takes place during winter dormancy. Cubs are born blind and helpless with at most a thin layer of hair, relying on their mother for warmth. The milk of the female bear is rich in fat and antibodies and cubs may suckle for up to a year after they are born. By 2–3 months, cubs can follow their mother outside the den. They usually follow her on foot, but sloth bear cubs may ride on their mother's back. In some species, offspring may become independent around their second year, through some may stay until the female successfully mates again.
Male bears play no role in raising young. , where an adult male kills the cubs of another, has been recorded in polar bears, brown bears and American black bears but not in other species. Males kill young to bring the female into . Cubs may flee and the mother defends them even at the cost of her life. Bears reach
shortly at around 3–6 years depending on the species. Male Alaskan brown bears and polar bears may continue to grow until they are 11 years old.
Main article:
Bears of northern regions, including the
and the , hibernate in the winter. During hibernation, the bear's metabolism slows down, its body temperature decreases slightly, and its heart rate slows from a normal value of 55 to just 9 beats per minute. Bears normally do not wake during their hibernation, and can go the entire period without eating, drinking, urinating, or defecating. A
is formed in the colon, and is expelled when the bear wakes in the spring. If they have stored enough body fat, their muscles remain in good condition, and their protein maintenance requirements are met from recycling waste . Female bears give birth during the hibernation period, and are roused when doing so.
Hunters with shot bear, Sweden, early 20th century
As animals at the summit of the food chain, bears do not have many predators. The most important one is man, and as he started cultivating crops, he increasingly came in conflict with the bears that raided them. Since the invention of firearms, he has been able to kill bears with greater ease. The
is the only four-legged predator that regularly preys on adult bears, including brown bears, sloth bears, Asiatic black bears, and sun bears.
Bears are parasitized by eighty species of parasites, including single-celled protozoans and gastro-intestinal worms, and nematodes and flukes in their heart, liver, lungs and bloodstream. Externally they have ticks, fleas and lice. A study of American black bears found seventeen species of endoparasite including the protozoan , the parasitic worm , and the nematodes , ,
sp. and others. Of these, D. mansonoides and adult C. aerophila were causing pathological symptoms. By contrast, polar bear many parasitic species need a secondary, usually terrestrial, host, and the polar bear's life style is such that few alternative hosts exist in their environment. The protozoan
has been found in polar bears, and the nematode
can cause a serious infection and decline in older polar bears. Bears in North America are sometimes infected by a
similar to the . They are susceptible to
(CAV-1), with free-living black bears dying rapidly of encephalitis and hepatitis.
A barrel trap in ,
used to relocate bears away from where they might
Main article:
In modern times, bears have come under pressure through encroachment on their habitats and illegal trade in bear parts, including the
market, though hunting is now banned, largely replaced by farming. The
even the two
species, the brown bear and the American black bear, are at risk of
in certain areas. In general these two species inhabit remote areas with little interaction with humans, and the main non-natural causes of mortality are hunting, trapping, road-kill and depredation.
Laws have been passed in many areas of the world
from . Public perception of bears is often positive, as people identify with bears due to their omnivorous diets, ability to stand on two legs, and symbolic importance, and support for bear protection is widespread, at least in more affluent societies. Where bears raid crops or attack livestock, they may come into conflict with humans. In poorer rural regions, attitudes may be more shaped by the dangers posed by bears and the economic costs they cause to farmers and ranchers.
Main article:
Several bear species are , especially in areas where they have b elsewhere, they generally avoid humans.
are rare, but are widely reported. Bears may attack humans in response to being startled, in defense of young or food, or even for predatory reasons.
The dancing bear by , 1822
Bears in captivity have for centuries been used for entertainment. They have been trained to , and were kept for
in Europe at least since the 16th century. There were five bear-baiting gardens in , L archaeological remains of three of these have survived. Across Europe,
bear handlers called
lived by busking with their bears from the 12th century.
A nomadic , a
bear-busker. Drawing by , 1888
for sport, food, and . Their meat is dark and stringy, like a tough cut of beef. In , bear paws are considered a delicacy. Bear meat should be cooked thoroughly, as it can be infected with the parasite .
The peoples of eastern Asia use bears' body parts and secretions (notably their gallbladders and bile) as part of . More than 12,000 bears are thought to be kept on farms in China, Vietnam, and South Korea for the production of bile. Trade in bear products is prohibited under , but bear bile has been detected in shampoos, wine and herbal medicines sold in Canada, the United States and Australia.
Further information: , , and
There is evidence of prehistoric , though this is disputed by archaeologists. The prehistoric ,
and more recently
considered the bear as the spirit of their forefathers. There is evidence of bear worship in early Chinese and . In many
cultures, the bear is a symbol of rebirth because of its hibernation and re-emergence. The image of the mother bear was prevalent throughout societies in North America and Eurasia, based on the female's devotion and protection of her cubs.
as depicted in , c. 1825
The constellations of Ursa Major and , the great and little bears, are named for their supposed resemblance to bears, from the time of . The nearby star
means "guardian of the bear", as if it were watching the two constellations. Ursa Major has been associated with a bear for as much as 13,000 years since
times, in the widespread
myths. These are found on both sides of the , which was lost to the sea some 11,000 years ago.
(1st century AD) claims that "when first born, [bears] are shapeless masses of white flesh, a lit their claws alone being prominent. The mother then licks them gradually into proper shape." This belief was echoed by authors of
throughout the medieval period.
Legends of
taming bears are common in the Alpine zone. In the arms of the bishopric of , the bear is the dangerous totem animal tamed by St.
and made to carry his civilised baggage over the mountains. Bears similarly feature in the legends of St. ,
and . This recurrent motif was used by the Church as a symbol of the victory of Christianity over paganism. In the Norse settlements of northern England during the 10th century, a type of "hogback" grave cover of a long narrow block of stone, with a shaped apex like the roof beam of a long house, is carved with a muzzled, thus Christianised, bear clasping each gable end, as in the church at
and across the British Isles.
Bears are popular in children's stories, including "", , , and "". The
has appeared in numerous comic books,
and films. The
began as greeting cards in 1982, and were featured as toys, on clothing and in film. Around the world, many children—and some adults—have ,
in the form of bears, named after the American statesman
when in 1902 he had refused to shoot an American black bear tied to a tree.
Onikuma from , c. 1841
orders the bear that killed his horse to carry his load.
"The Three Bears", 's illustration to English Fairy Tales, by , 1918
bear sacrifice.
scroll painting, c. 1870
Bears kill the youths who had insulted the Prophet . French, 1453
has been a common
for Russia from the 16th century onwards.
has become a part of American culture since his introduction in 1944, with his message "Only you can prevent wildfires". In the UK, the bear and staff feature on the heraldic arms of the county of . Bears appear in the
of two cities, Bern and , both of whose names include the word "bear".
Juvenile pandas at the
Research Base of Giant Panda Breeding
The International Association for Bear Research & Management, also known as the , and the
of the Species Survival Commission, a part of the
focus on the natural history, management, and conservation of bears. Bear Trust International works for wild bears and other wildlife through four core program initiatives, namely Conservation Education, Wild Bear Research, Wild Bear Management, and Habitat Conservation.
Specialty organizations for each of the eight species of bears worldwide include:
Vital Ground, for the brown bear
Moon Bears, for the Asiatic black bear
Black Bear Conservation Coalition, for the North American black bear
Polar Bears International, for the polar bear
Bornean Sun Bear Conservation Centre, for the sun bear
Wildlife SOS, for the sloth bear
Andean Bear Conservation Project, for the Andean bear
Chengdu Research Base of Giant Panda Breeding, for the giant panda
Ptolemy named the constellations in Greek, ?ρκτο? μεγ?λη (Arktos Megale) and ?ρκτο? μικρ? (Arktos Mikra), the great and little bears.
. Online Etymology Dictionary 2017.
Liddell, Henry G Scott, Robert. . A Greek-English Lexicon. Perseus Digital Library.
from the original on 30 November .
Sweet, Henry (1884) . The Clarendon Press, p. 202.
Welsey-Hunt, G. D.; Flynn, J. J. (2005). "Phylogeny of the Carnivora: basal relationships among the Carnivoramorphans, and assessment of the position of 'Miacoidea' relative to Carnivora". Journal of Systematic Palaeontology. 3 (1): 1–28. :.
Servheen, Christopher (1999). . IUCN. pp. 26–30.  .
Kemp, T. S. (2005). The Origin and Evolution of Mammals. Oxford University Press. p. 260.  .
Banyue, W Zhanxiang, Qiu (2005).
(PDF). Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History. 279 (279): 116–124. :.
(PDF) from the original on .
; Barnes, L. G.; Ray, C. E. (1994).
(PDF). Proceedings of the San Diego Society of Natural History. 29: 11–32.
Waits, Lisette (1999).
(PDF). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 13: 82–92. :.
Pàges, Marie (2008). "Combined analysis of fourteen nuclear genes refines the Ursidae phylogeny". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 47: 73–83. :.
Krause, J.; Unger, T.; No?on, A.; Malaspinas, A.; Kolokotronis, S.; Stiller, M.; Soibelzon, L.; Spriggs, H.; Dear, P. H.; Briggs, A. W.; Bray, S. C. E.; O'Brien, S. J.; Rabeder, G.; Matheus, P.; Cooper, A.; Slatkin, M.; P??bo, S.; Hofreiter, M. (2008). . BMC Evolutionary Biology. 8 (220): 220. :.  .  .
Soibelzon, L. H.; Tonni, E. P.; Bond, M. (2005). "The fossil record of South American short-faced bears (Ursidae, Tremarctinae)". Journal of South American Earth Sciences. 20 (1–2): 105–113. :.
Qiu Zhanxiang (2003).
(PDF). Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History. 279 (279): 18–31. :.
(PDF) from the original on 20 November 2009.
Ward and Kynaston, pp. 74–77
Liu, S Lorenzen, Eline D.; Fumagalli, M Li, Bo; Harris, K Xiong, Z Zhou, L Korneliussen, Thorfinn S Somel, M Babbitt, C Wray, G Li, J He, W Wang, Z Fu, W Xiang, X Morgan, Claire C.; Doherty, A O'Connell, Mary J.; McInerney, James O.; Born, Erik W.; Dalén, L Dietz, R Orlando, L Sonne, C Zhang, G Nielsen, R Willerslev, E Wang, Jun (2014). . Cell. 157 (4): 785–794. :.  .  .
Flynn, J. J.; Finarelli, J. A.; Zehr, S.; Hsu, J.; Nedbal, M. A. (2005). "Molecular phylogeny of the Carnivora (Mammalia): Assessing the impact of increased sampling on resolving enigmatic relationships". Systematic Biology. 54 (2): 317–37. :.  .
Yu, Li; Li, Yi-W Ryder, Oliver A.; Zhang, Ya-Ping (2007). . BMC Evolutionary Biology. 7 (198). :.
Simpson, George Gaylord (1945). . Bulletin of the AMNH. 85: 111–112.
Abella, J et al. (2012). "Kretzoiarctos gen. nov., the oldest member of the giant panda clade". PLOS ONE. 7 (11): e48985. :.
Kieren J. Mitchell, Sarah C. Bray, Pere Bover, Leopoldo Soibelzon, Blaine W. Schubert, Francisco Prevosti, Alfredo Prieto, Fabiana Martin, Jeremy J. Austin and Alan Cooper (2016). . Biology Letters. 12 (4): . :.  .  .
. National Geographic 2017.
. National Geographic 2017.
Anon (2010). . Marshall Cavendish. pp. 104–123.  .
Derocher, Andrew E.; Andersen, M Wiig, ?ystein (2005).
(PDF). Journal of Mammalogy. 86 (5): 895–901. :.
Hunt, R. M. Jr. (1998). "Ursidae". In Janis, Christine M.; Scott, Kathleen M.; Jacobs, Louis L. Evolution of Tertiary Mammals of North America, volume 1: Terrestrial carnivores, ungulates, and ungulatelike mammals. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. pp. 174–195.  .
Ward and Kynaston, pp. 124–125
Bunnell, Fred (1984). Macdonald, D., ed. The Encyclopedia of Mammals. Facts on File. p. 87.  .
Ward and Kynaston, pp. 117–121
Weissengruber, G. E.; Forstenpointner, G.; Kübber-Heiss, A.; Riedelberger, K.; Schwammer, H.; Ganzberger, K. (2001). . Journal of Anatomy. 198 (3): 309–14. :.  .  .
Schwartz, C. C.; Miller, S. D.; Haroldson, M. A. "Grizzly Bear". In Feldhamer, G.; Thompson, B.; Chapman, J. Wild Mammals of North A biology, management and conservation. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 562.  .
. National Park Service 2017.
Ruiqiang Li; Tian, G Zhu, H He, L Cai, J Huang, Q Cai, Q Li, Bo; Bai, Y Zhang, Z Zhang, Y Wang, W Li, J Wei, F Li, H Jian, M Li, J Zhang, Z Nielsen, R Li, D Gu, W Yang, Z Xuan, Z Ryder, Oliver A.; Leung, Frederick Chi-C Zhou, Y Cao, J Sun, X et al. (2010). . Nature. 463 (21): 311–317. :. :.  .  .
Ward and Kynaston, p. 83
Servheen, Christopher (1999). . IUCN. pp. 5–10.  .
Ward and Kynaston, p.52
Hamdine, W Thévenot, M Michaux, Jacques (1998). "Histoire récente de l'ours brun au Maghreb". Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences (in French). 321 (7): 565–570. :.
Nowak, R. M. (2005). Walker's Carnivores of the World. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 114.  .
Klinka, D. R.; Reimchen, T. E. (2002).
(PDF). Canadian Journal of Zoology. 80: . :.
Ward and Kynaston, 99
Sandell, M. (1989). "The mating tactics and spacing patterns of solitary carnivores". Carnivore behavior, ecology, and evolution. Springer. pp. 164–182. :.  .
Stonorov, D.; Stokes, A. W. (1972).
(PDF). 2. International Association for Bear Research & Management: 232–242. :.
Naughton, D. (2014). The Natural History of Canadian Mammals: Opossums and Carnivores. University of Toronto Press. pp. 218–219, 236, 251–252.  .
. North American Bear Center 2017.
Masterson, Linda (2016). Living With Bears Handbook: Expanded 2nd Edition. PixyJack Press. pp. 215–16.  .
Peters, G.; Owen, M.; Rogers, L. (2007).
(PDF). Acta Theriologica. 52 (4): 379–389. :.
Jordan, R. H. (1976). "Threat behavior of the black bear (Ursus americanus)". Bears: Their Biology and Management. 40: 57–63. :.
Ward and Kynaston, p. 130
Ward and Kynaston, p. 122
Nie, Y.; Swaisgood, R. R.; Zhang, Z.; Hu, Y.; Ma, Y.; Wei, F. (2012). "Giant panda scent-marking strategies in the wild: role of season, sex and marking surface". Animal Behaviour. 84 (1): 39–44. :.
Owen, M. A.; Swaisgood, R. R.; Slocomb, C.; Amstrup, S. C.; Durner, G. M.; Simac, K.; Pessier, A. P. (2014). "An experimental investigation of chemical communication in the polar bear". Journal of Zoology. 295 (1): 36–43. :.
Hwang, Mei-Hsiu (2002).
(PDF). Ursus. 13: 111–125.
Rue, Leonard Lee (1981). . Crown Publishers. p. 129.  .
Mattson, David J. (1998). "Diet and Morphology of Extant and Recently Extinct Northern Bears". Ursus, A Selection of Papers from the Tenth International Conference on Bear Research and Management, Fairbanks, Alaska, July 1995, and Mora, Sweden, September 1995. 10: 479–496.  .
Ryan, C Pack, James C.; Igo, William K.; Billings, Anthony (2007). "Influence of mast production on black bear non-hunting mortalities in West Virginia". Ursus. 18 (1): 46–53. :.
Lumpkin, S Seidensticker, John (2007). Giant Pandas. Collins. p. 63.  .
Ward and Kynaston, pp. 89–92
Dolberg, Frands (1 August 1992). . University of Arhus 2010.
Ward and Kynaston, p. 87
Joshi, A Garshelis, David L.; Smith, James L. D. (1997). "Seasonal and Habitat-Related Diets of Sloth Bears in Nepal". Journal of Mammalology. 1978 (2): 584–597. :.
Ward and Kynaston, p. 89
Ward and Kynaston, pp. 93–98
Zager, P Beecham, John (2006). "The role of American black bears and brown bears as predators on ungulates in North America". Ursus. 17 (2): 95–108. :.
Ward and Kynaston, p. 92
COSEWIC. Canadian Wildlife Service (2002).
Ward and Kynaston, p. 104
Eide, S.; Miller, S.
(PDF). Alaska Department of Fish and Game 2016.
Ward and Kynaston, pp. 138–141
Lariviere, S. (2001).
(PDF). Mammalian Species. 647: 1–11. :.
Ward and Kynaston, pp. 144–148
. Pandas International 2015.
Ward and Kynaston, p. 132
Bellemain, E.; Zedrosser, A.; Manel, S.; Waits, L. P.; Taberlet, P.; Swenson, J. E. (2006). . Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences. 273 (1584): 283–291. :.  .  .
Swenson, J. E.; Dahle, B.; Sandegren, F. (2001). . Ursus. 12: 81–91.  .
M?rner, T.; Eriksson, H.; Br?jer, C.; Nilsson, K.; Uhlhorn, H.,; ?gren, E.; af Segerstad, C.H.; Jansson, D.S.; Gavier-Widén, D. (2005). "Diseases and mortality in free-ranging brown bear (Ursus arctos), gray wolf (Canis lupus), and wolverine (Gulo gulo) in Sweden". Journal of wildlife diseases. 41 (2): 298–303. :.  .
Gerhard Heldmeier (2011). "Life on low flame in hibernation". Science. 331 (6019): 866–867. :.  .
Shimozuru, M.; et al. (2013). "Pregnancy during hibernation in Japanese black bears: effects on body temperature and blood biochemical profiles". Journal of Mammalogy. 94 (3): 618–627. :.
T?ien, ?.; et al. (2011). "Hibernation in Black Bears: Independence of Metabolic Suppression from Body Temperature". Science. 331 (6019): 906–909. :.  .
Biel, M; Gunther, K. . Yellowstone National Park. National Park Service 2016.
McTaggart Cowan, I. (1972). "The Status and Conservation of Bears (Ursidae) of the World: 1970". Bears: Their Biology and Management. 2: 343–367. :.
Seryodkin, Ivan (2006).
Far Eastern National University, Vladivostok, Russia. pp. 1–252.
Geptner, V. G., Sludskii, A. A. (1972). Mlekopitaiu??ie Sovetskogo Soiuza. Vys?aia ?kola, Moskva. (In R English translation: Heptner, V. G.; Sludskii, A. A.; Bannikov, A. G.; (1992).
Smithsonian Institution and the National Science Foundation, Washington DC). pp. 95–202.
Frasef, A. (2012). Feline Behaviour and Welfare. CABI. pp. 72–77.  .
David Prynn (2004). Amur tiger. Russian Nature Press. p. 115.
S et al. (2003). . Ursus. 14 (2): 159.
Kawanishi, K.; Sunquist, M. E. (2004). "Conservation status of tigers in a primary rainforest of Peninsular Malaysia". Biological Conservation. 120: 329–344. :.
Crum, James M.; Nettles, Victor F.; Davidson, William R. (1978). "Studies on endoparasites of the black bear (Ursus americanus) in the southeastern United States". Journal of Wildlife Diseases. 14 (2): 178–186. :.
Derocher, Andrew E. (2012). . JHU Press. p. 212.  .
. John Libbey Eurotext. p. 167.  .
Williams, Elizabeth S.; Barker, Ian K. (2008). . John Wiley & Sons. p. 203.  .
. WWF 2017.
Bacon, Heather (12 May 2008). . Vet Times 2017.
Pelton, Michael R.; Coley, Alex B.; Eason, Thomas H.; Doan M Diana L.; Pederson, Joel A.; van Manen, Frank T.; Weaver, Keith M. (1999). . IUCN. pp. 144–156.  .
Kellert, Stephen (1994). "Public Attitudes toward Bears and Their Conservation". Bears: Their Biology and Management. 9 (1): 43–50. :.  .
Andersone, ? Ozolin?, Jānis (2004). "Public perception of large carnivores in Latvia". Ursus. 15 (2): 181–187. :.
Goldstein, I Paisley, S Wallace, R Jorgenson, Jeffrey P.; Cuesta, F Castellanos, Armando (2006). "Andean bear–livestock conflicts: a review". Ursus. 17 (1): 8–15. :.
Fredriksson, Gabriella (2005). "Human–sun bear conflicts in East Kalimantan, Indonesian Borneo". Ursus. 16 (1): 130–137. :.
Clark, Douglas (2003).
(PDF). Ursus. 14 (1): 65–71.
Than, K. (2013). .
Findeizen, Nikolai (2008). . Indiana University Press. p. 201.  .
. Historic England. 26 September .
Fraser, Angus M. (1995). The Gypsies. Blackwell. pp. 45–48, 226.  .
from the original on 30 September .
. BBC News. 21 December .
Black, Richard (11 June 2007). . BBC News.
from the original on 18 November .
Wunn, Ina (2000). "Beginning of Religion". . 47 (4): 417–452. :.
Bonser, Wilfrid (1928). . Folklore. 39 (4): 344–358. :.  .
Chaussonnet, Valerie (1995). Native Cultures of Alaska and Siberia. Washington, D.C.: Arctic Studies Center. p. 112.  .
Lee, Jung Young (1981). Korean Shamanistic Rituals. Mouton De Gruyter. pp. 14, 20.  .
Kindaichi, Kyō Yoshida, Minori (Winter 1949). "The Concepts behind the Ainu Bear Festival (Kumamatsuri)". Southwestern Journal of Anthropology. 5 (4): 345–350. :.  .
Ward and Kynaston, p. 17
Ward and Kynaston, pp. 12–13
Liddell, Henry G Scott, Robert. . A Greek-English Lexicon. Perseus 2017.
Schaefer, Bradley E. The Origin of the Greek Constellations: Was the Great Bear constellation named before hunter nomads first reached the Americas more than 13,000 years ago?, , November 2006, Yuri Berezkin, . Folklore, 31, 0.
Pliny (1855). Bostock, J Riley, Henry T., ed. . p. 8.4].
Badke, David.
Pastoreau, Michel (2007). L'ours. Historie d'un roi déchu (in French). Seuil.  .
Hall, Richard (1995). Viking Age Archaeology. pp. 43 and fig. 22.  .
Elms, Alan C. (July–September 1977). ""The Three Bears": Four Interpretations". . 90 (357).  .
. BBC News. 24 December .
Kennedy, Patrick, ed. (1866). "The Brown Bear of Norway". . Macmillan. pp. 57–67.
Mallory, Michael (1998). Hanna-Barbera Cartoons. Hugh Lauter Levin. p. 44.  .
Browne, Ray B.; Browne, Pat (2001). . Popular Press. p. 944.  .
Holmes, Elizabeth (9 February 2007). .
(1 February 2013). . BBC 2017.
, 2, 23–24
. Telegraph. 23 April .
. Ad Council. .
from the original on .
. Buddy B?r Berlin. .
. Bear Trust International.
Ward, P.; Kynaston, S. (1995). Wild Bears of the World. Facts on File, Inc.  .
Domico, T Newman, Mark (1988). Bears of the World. Facts on File, Inc.  .
(1942). . Curley Publishing.  .
Brunner, Bernd (2007). Bears: A Brief History. Yale University Press.  .
Find more aboutBearsat Wikipedia's
from Wiktionary
from Commons
from Wikinews
from Wikiquote
from Wikisource
from Wikibooks
from Wikiversity
from Wikispecies
: Hidden categories:}
&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&签到排名：今日本吧第个签到，本吧因你更精彩，明天继续来努力！
本吧签到人数：0可签7级以上的吧50个
本月漏签0次！成为超级会员，赠送8张补签卡连续签到：天&&累计签到：天超级会员单次开通12个月以上，赠送连续签到卡3张
关注：1,521贴子：
《熊太》来只外国熊 个人很喜欢哦
人生路漫漫，总有那么一...
你最萌哪一对cp？有兴趣...
准不准你说了算哦
长镜头的调度，场景的打...
晒明星剧组盒饭啥样？
真是一部良心剧！
人鱼热恋中？冯绍峰 郭...
你最期待哪部呢？
中国文化上下五千年，不...
这道菜很简单精致做起来...
单身无罪，出来受虐就是...
如果世界上真有轮回 那...
为客户提供快捷安全的数据库 数据恢复服务
都说白人的弟弟比黄种人的壮，看来也不尽然啊
可以关联很多网站
贴吧热议榜
使用签名档&&
保存至快速回贴From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
"Ursine" redirects here. For the village, see . For other uses, see .
Ursidae. Bears are classified as , or doglike carnivorans. Although only eight
of bears are extant, they are widespread, appearing in a wide variety of
throughout the
and partially in the . Bears are found on the
of , , , and . Common characteristics of modern bears include large bodies with stocky legs, long snouts, small rounded ears, shaggy hair,
paws with five nonretractile claws, and short tails.
is mostly , and the
feeds almost entirely on , the remaining six species are
with varied diets. With the exception of
individuals and mothers with their young, bears are typically . They may be
and have an excellent . Despite their heavy build and awkward gait, they are adept runners, climbers, and swimmers. Bears use shelters, such as caves and logs, most species occupy their dens during the winter for a long period of , up to 100 days.
Bears have been hunted since they have been used for
and other forms of entertainment, such as being . With their powerful physical presence, they play a prominent role in , , and other cultural aspects of various human societies. In modern times, bears have come under pressure through encroachment on their habitats and illegal trade in bear parts, including the Asian
market. The
lists six bear species as
or , and even
species, such as the , are at risk of
in certain countries. The poaching and international trade of these most threatened populations are prohibited, but still ongoing.
The English word "bear" comes from
bera and belongs to a family of names for the bear in , such as Swedish , also used as a first name, that originate from an adjective meaning "brown".
Bear taxon names such as
come from the ancient Greek word ?ρκτο? (arktos), meaning bear, as do the names "" and "", from the
, the "Great Bear", prominent in the northern sky.
Bear taxon names such as Ursidae and Ursus come from Latin Ursus/Ursa, he-bear/she-bear. The female first name "Ursula", originally derived from a Christian 's name, means "little she-bear" (diminutive of Latin ursa). In Switzerland, the male first name "Urs" is especially popular, while the name of the canton and city of
is derived from B?r,
for bear. The Germanic name
(including Bernhardt and similar forms) means "bear-brave", "bear-hardy", or "bold bear". The Old English name
is a , "bee-wolf", for bear, in turn meaning a brave warrior.
The family Ursidae is one of nine families in the suborder , or "doglike" carnivores, within the
. Bears' closest living relatives are the , , and . Modern bears comprise eight species in three subfamilies:
(monotypic with the ),
(monotypic with the ), and
(containing six species divided into one to three genera, depending on the authority). Nuclear chromosome analysis show that the
of the six ursine bears is nearly identical, with each having 74 , whereas the giant panda has 42 chromosomes and the spectacled bear 52. These smaller numbers can be explained by the fusing of some chromosomes, and the banding patterns on these match those of the ursine species, but differ from those of procyonids, which supports the inclusion of these two species in Ursidae rather than in , where they had been placed by some earlier authorities.
The earliest members of Ursidae belong to the extinct subfamily Amphicynodontinae, including
to early middle , 38–18 ) and the slightly younger Allocyon (early , 34–30 Mya), both from North America. These animals looked very different from today's bears, being small and raccoon-like in overall appearance, and diets perhaps more similar to that of a badger. Parictis does not appear in Eurasia and Africa until the Miocene. It is unclear whether late-Eocene ursids were also present in Eurasia, although faunal exchange across the
may have been possible during a major sea level low stand as early as the late Eocene (about 37 Mya) and continuing into the early Oligocene. European genera morphologically are very similar to Allocyon, and to the much younger American
(about 18 Mya), are known from the Oligocene, including Amphicticeps and .
The raccoon-sized, dog-like
is the oldest-known member of the subfamily , which first appeared during the middle Oligocene in Eurasia about 30 Mya ago. The subfamily includes the younger genera
(20–15 Mya), and
(15–7 Mya). A Cephalogale-like species gave rise to the genus
during the early Oligocene (30–28 Mya); this genus proliferated into many species in Asia and is ancestral to all living bears. Species of Ursavus subsequently entered North America, together with Amphicynodon and Cephalogale, during the early Miocene (21–18 Mya). Members of the living lineages of bears diverged from Ursavus between 15 and 20 Mya ago, likely via the species Ursavus elmensis. Based on genetic and morphological data, the Ailuropodinae (pandas) were the first to diverge from other living bears about 19 Mya ago, although no fossils of this group have been found before about 5 Mya.
The New World short-faced bears (Tremarctinae) differentiated from Ursinae following a dispersal event into North America during the mid-Miocene (about 13 Mya). They
(≈1 Ma) following formation of the . Their earliest fossil representative is
in North America (~ 10–2 Ma). This genus is probably the direct ancestor to the
(genus Arctodus), the
(Arctotherium), and the spectacled bears, Tremarctos, represented by both an extinct North American species (), and the lone surviving representative of the Tremarctinae, the South American spectacled bear (T. ornatus).
(Ursus spelaeus)
The subfamily Ursinae experienced a dramatic proliferation of taxa about 5.3–4.5 Mya ago, coincident with major e the first members of the genus
appeared around this time. The
is a modern survivor of one of the earliest lineages to diverge during this radiation event (5.3 Mya); it took on its peculiar morphology, related to its diet of termites and ants, no later than by the early Pleistocene. By 3–4 Mya ago, the species Ursus minimus appears in the fossil record of E apart from its size, it was nearly identical to today's . It is likely ancestral to all bears within Ursinae, perhaps aside from the sloth bear. Two lineages evolved from U. minimus: the black bears (including the , the Asian black bear, and the ); and the brown bears (which includes the ). Modern
evolved from U. minimus via , which itself is ancestral to the extinct
. Species of Ursinae have migrated repeatedly into North America from Eurasia as early as 4 Mya during the early Pliocene. The polar bear is the most recently evolved species and descended from the brown bear around 400,000 years ago.
The bears form a
within the Carnivora. The
is not a bear but a musteloid. The
is based on
of six genes in Flynn, 2005.
      
      
   
Other musteloids
of extant bear species is shown in a cladogram based on complete
sequences from Yu et al., 2007. The giant panda, followed by the spectacled bear are clearly the oldest species. The relationships of the other species are not very well resolved, though the polar bear and the brown bear form a close grouping.
Extant species are shown in bold, extinct taxa are marked +.
Family Ursidae
+ Ailurarctos lufengensis
+ Ailurarctos yuanmouenensis
lower jaws
– giant panda
+ Plionarctos edensis
+ Plionarctos harroldorum
(spectacled bears)
– spectacled bear
– Florida spectacled bear
+ Arctodus simus – giant short-faced bear
+ Arctodus pristinus
restoration
+ Arctotherium angustidens
+ Arctotherium bonariense
+ Arctotherium brasilense
+ Arctotherium latidens
+ Arctotherium tarijense
+ Arctotherium vetustum
+ Arctotherium wingei
+ Ursavus brevirhinus
+ Ursavus depereti
+ Ursavus elmensis
+ Ursavus pawniensis
+ Ursavus primaevus
+ Ursavus tedfordi
+ Indarctos anthraciti
+ Indarctos arctoides
+ Indarctos atticus
+ Indarctos nevadensis
+ Indarctos oregonensis
+ Indarctos salmontanus
+ Indarctos vireti
+ Indarctos zdanskyi
+ Agriotherium inexpetans
+ Agriotherium schneideri
+ Agriotherium sivalensis
– sloth bear
– sun bear
– Asian black bear
– American black bear
– brown bear
– polar bear
– cave bear
+ , MacFarlane's bear (; possibly a hybrid)
+ Kolponomos clallamensis
+ Kolponomos newportensis
Polar bear (right) and sun bear, the largest and smallest species respectively.
Bears include the most massive extant terrestrial members of the order Carnivora. Polar bears weigh up to 1,600 lb (730 kg). The smallest are the sun bears of Asia, which weigh up to 150 lb (68 kg). Body weight varies throughout the year in bears of temperate and arctic climates, as they build up fat reserves in the summer and autumn and lose weight during the winter. Head-and-body length can range from 150 cm (59 in) in sun bears to 244 cm (96 in) in polar bears.
Unlike most other Carnivora, bears have
feet. Drawing by , 1866
Bears are generally bulky and robust animals with short tails. They are
with regard to size, with the males being larger. Larger species tend to show increased levels of sexual dimorphism in comparison to smaller species. Relying as they do on strength rather than speed, bears have relatively short limbs with thick bones to support their bulk. The
are correspondingly massive. The limbs are much straighter than those of the big cats as there is no need for them to flex in the same way due to the differences in their gait. The strong forelimbs are used to catch prey, to excavate dens, to dig out burrowing animals, to turn over rocks and logs to locate prey, and to club large creatures.
Despite being , bears can stand and sit as humans do.
Unlike most other land carnivorans, bears are . They distribute their weight toward the hind feet, which makes them look lumbering when they walk. They are capable of bursts of speed but soon tire, and as a result mostly rely on ambush rather than the chase. Bears can stand on their hind feet and sit up straight with remarkable balance. Their front paws are flexible enough to grasp fruit and leaves. Bears' non-retractable claws are used for digging, climbing, tearing, and catching prey. The claws on the front feet are larger than those on the back and may be a hindrance black bears are the most arboreal of the bears, and have the shortest claws. Pandas are unique in having a bony extension on the wrist of the front feet which acts as a thumb, and is used for gripping bamboo shoots as the animals feed.
Most mammals have
hair, with each individual hair shaft having bands of colour corresponding to two different types of
pigment. Bears however have a single type of melanin and the hairs have a single colour throughout their length, apart from the tip which is sometimes a different shade. The coat consists of long guard hairs, which form a protective shaggy covering, and short dense hairs which form an insulating layer trapping air close to the skin. The shaggy coat helps maintain body heat during winter hibernation and is shed in the spring leaving a shorter summer coat. Polar bears have hollow, translucent guard hairs which gain heat from the sun and conduct it to the dark-coloured skin below. They have a thick layer of blubber for extra insulation, and the soles of their feet have a dense pad of fur. Other than the bold black-and-white pelage of the panda, bears tend to be uniform in colour, although some species may have markings on the chest or face.
Bears have small rounded ears so as to minimise heat loss, but both their hearing and sight are not particularly acute. Unlike many other carnivores they have , perhaps to help them distinguish ripe nuts and fruits. They are unique among carnivores in not having touch-sensitive
on the muzzle, however they have an excellent , better than that of the
(Canidae), or possibly any other mammal. They use smell for signalling to each other (either to warn off rivals or detect mates) and for finding food. Smell is the principal sense used by bears to locate most of their food, and they have excellent memories which helps them to relocate places where they have found food before.
Sloth bear skull
of bears are massive, providing anchorage for the powerful
jaw muscles. The
are large but mostly used for display, and the
teeth flat and crushing. Unlike most other members of the Carnivora, bears have relatively undeveloped
teeth, and their teeth are adapted for a diet that includes a significant amount of vegetable matter. Considerable variation occurs in
even within a given species. This may indicate bears are still in the process of evolving from a mainly meat-eating diet to a predominantly herbivorous one. Polar bears appear to have secondarily re-evolved carnassial-like cheek teeth, as their diets have switched back towards carnivory. Sloth bears lack lower central incisors and use their protusible lips for sucking up the termites on which they feed. The general dental formula for living bears is: 3.1.2–4.23.1.2–4.3. The structure of the
of bears appears to be the most
of the caniforms. They possess air pouches connected to the
their vocalisations.
Bears have a fairly simple digestive system typical for carnivorans, with a single stomach, short undifferentiated intestines and no . Even the herbivorous giant panda still has the digestive system of a carnivore, as well as carnivore-specific genes. Its ability to digest
is ascribed to the microbes in its gut. Bears must spend much of their time feeding in order to gain enough nutrition from plant matter. The panda, in particular, spends 12–15 hours a day feeding.
is the only species found in South America.
Further information:
Bears are found in sixty countries primarily in the Northern Hemisphere and are concentrated in Asia, North America, and Europe. An exception is native to South America, it inhabits the . The sun bear's range extends below the equator in Southeast Asia. The , a subspecies of the brown bear, was the only bear native to . It was distributed in North Africa from Morocco to Libya, but it became extinct around the 1870s. The most widespread species is the brown bear, which occurs from Western Europe eastwards through Asia to the western areas of North America. The American black bear is restricted to North America, and the polar bear is restricted to the Arctic Sea. All the remaining species of bear are Asian. They occur in a range of habitats which include tropical lowland rainforest, both coniferous and broadleaf forests, prairies, steppes, montane grassland, alpine scree slopes, Arctic tundra and in the case of the polar bear, . Bears may dig their dens in hillsides or use caves, hollow logs and dense vegetation for shelter.
Asian black bears during aggressive encounter
Brown and American black bears are generally , meaning that they are active for the most part during the day, though they may forage substantially by night. Other species may be , active at night, though female sloth bears with cubs may feed more at daytime to avoid competition from conspecifics and nocturnal predators. Bears are overwhelmingly solitary and are considered to be the most asocial of all the Carnivora. Liaisons between breeding bears are brief, and the only times bears are encountered in small groups are mothers with young or occasional seasonal bounties of rich food (such as salmon runs). With their acute sense of smell, bears can locate carcasses from several kilometres away. They use
to locate other foods, encounter mates, avoid rivals and recognise their cubs.
Sloth bear rubbing against tree
Bears produce a number of vocal and non-vocal sounds. Tongue-clicking and grunting many be made in cordial situations while moaning, huffing, sorting or blowing air is made when an individual is stressed. Barking is produced during times of alarm, excitement or to give away the animal's position. Warning sounds include jaw-clicking and lip-popping, while teeth-chatters, bellows, growls and roars are made in aggressive encounters. Cubs may squeal, bawl, bleat or scream when in distress and make motor-like humming when comfortable or nursing.
Bears sometimes communicate with visual displays such as , which exaggerates the individual's size. The chest markings of some species may add to this intimidating display. Staring is an aggressive act and the facial markings of spectacled bears and giant pandas may help draw attention to the eyes during
encounters. Individuals may approach each other by stiff-legged walking with the head lowered.
between bears is asserted by making a frontal orientation, showing the , muzzle twisting and neck stretching. A subordinate may respond with a lateral orientation, by turning away and dropping the head and by sitting or lying down. Fights may occur and older males may have extensive , which suggests that the maintenance of these hierarchies is intense.
Bears may mark territory by rubbing against trees and other objects which may serve to spread their scent. This is usually accompanied by clawing and biting the object. Bark may be spread around to draw attention to the marking post. Pandas are known to mark objects with urine and a waxy substance from their anal glands. Polar bears leave behind their scent in their tracks which allow individuals to keep track of one another in the vast Arctic wilderness.
feeding on bamboo. This species is mostly herbivorous.
Most bears have diets of more plant than animal matter and are completely opportunistic omnivores. At the extremes are the almost entirely herbivorous giant panda and the mostly carnivorous polar bear. However, all bears feed on any food source that becomes seasonally available. For example, Asiatic black bears in
consume large numbers of acorns when these are most common, and switch to
at other times of the year.
When foraging for plants, bears choose to eat them at the stage when they are at their most nutritious and digestible, typically avoiding older ,
and leaves. Knowing when plants are ripe for eating is a learned behaviour. In autumn, some bear species forage large amounts of naturally
fruits, which affects their behaviour. Smaller bears climb trees to obtain
(edible reproductive parts, such as acorns). Such masts can be very important to the diets of these species, and mast failures may result in long-range movements by bears looking for alternative food sources. The panda's diet is over 99% bamboo, of 30 different species. Its strong jaws are adapted for crushing these tough plants. Bamboo leaves contain the hi stems have less.
can make up to 50% of the diet of the spectacled bear, which also has strong jaws to bite them open.
Brown bear feeding on infrequent, but predictable,
migrations
The sloth bear, though not as specialised as polar bears and the panda, has lost several front teeth usually seen in bears, and developed a long, suctioning tongue to feed on the , , and other burrowing
they favour. At certain times of the year, these insects can make up 90% of their diets. Sun bears use their long tongues to lick up insects and honey. Fish are an important source of food for some species, and brown bears in particular gather in large numbers at salmon runs. Typically, a bear plunges into the water and seizes a fish with its jaws or front paws. The preferred parts to eat are the brain and eggs. Small mammals like
and rabbit are often eaten. The brown bear and both species of black bears sometimes take large ungulates, such as
and , mostly the young and weak. The polar bear preys on , such as seals, stalking them from the ice or breaking into their dens. They primarily eat the highly digestible blubber. Predatory behaviour in bears is typically taught to the young by the mother.
Bears are prolific
and , stealing food
from rodents, and carcasses from other predators. For hibernating species, weight gain is important as it provides nourishment during winter dormancy. A brown bear can eat 41 kg (90 lb) of food and gain 2–3 kg (4.4–6.6 lb) of fat a day prior to entering its den.
American black bears mating
The mating system of bears has variously been described as a form of ,
and . During the breeding season, males take notice of females in their vicinity and females become more tolerant of males. A male bear may visit a female continuously over a period of several days or weeks, depending on the species, to test her reproductive state. During this time period, males try to prevent rivals from interacting with their mate. Courtship may be brief, although in some Asian species, courting pairs may engage in wrestling, hugging, mock fighting and vocalising. , which can last up to 30 minutes depending on the species.
mother nursing her cub
typically lasts 6–9 months, including , and litter size numbers up to four cubs. Giant pandas may give birth to twins but they can only suckle one young and the other is left to die. In northern living species, birth takes place during winter dormancy. Cubs are born blind and helpless with at most a thin layer of hair, relying on their mother for warmth. The milk of the female bear is rich in fat and antibodies and cubs may suckle for up to a year after they are born. By 2–3 months, cubs can follow their mother outside the den. They usually follow her on foot, but sloth bear cubs may ride on their mother's back. In some species, offspring may become independent around their second year, through some may stay until the female successfully mates again.
Male bears play no role in raising young. , where an adult male kills the cubs of another, has been recorded in polar bears, brown bears and American black bears but not in other species. Males kill young to bring the female into . Cubs may flee and the mother defends them even at the cost of her life. Bears reach
shortly at around 3–6 years depending on the species. Male Alaskan brown bears and polar bears may continue to grow until they are 11 years old.
Main article:
Bears of northern regions, including the
and the , hibernate in the winter. During hibernation, the bear's metabolism slows down, its body temperature decreases slightly, and its heart rate slows from a normal value of 55 to just 9 beats per minute. Bears normally do not wake during their hibernation, and can go the entire period without eating, drinking, urinating, or defecating. A
is formed in the colon, and is expelled when the bear wakes in the spring. If they have stored enough body fat, their muscles remain in good condition, and their protein maintenance requirements are met from recycling waste . Female bears give birth during the hibernation period, and are roused when doing so.
Hunters with shot bear, Sweden, early 20th century
As animals at the summit of the food chain, bears do not have many predators. The most important one is man, and as he started cultivating crops, he increasingly came in conflict with the bears that raided them. Since the invention of firearms, he has been able to kill bears with greater ease. The
is the only four-legged predator that regularly preys on adult bears, including brown bears, sloth bears, Asiatic black bears, and sun bears.
Bears are parasitized by eighty species of parasites, including single-celled protozoans and gastro-intestinal worms, and nematodes and flukes in their heart, liver, lungs and bloodstream. Externally they have ticks, fleas and lice. A study of American black bears found seventeen species of endoparasite including the protozoan , the parasitic worm , and the nematodes , ,
sp. and others. Of these, D. mansonoides and adult C. aerophila were causing pathological symptoms. By contrast, polar bear many parasitic species need a secondary, usually terrestrial, host, and the polar bear's life style is such that few alternative hosts exist in their environment. The protozoan
has been found in polar bears, and the nematode
can cause a serious infection and decline in older polar bears. Bears in North America are sometimes infected by a
similar to the . They are susceptible to
(CAV-1), with free-living black bears dying rapidly of encephalitis and hepatitis.
A barrel trap in ,
used to relocate bears away from where they might
Main article:
In modern times, bears have come under pressure through encroachment on their habitats and illegal trade in bear parts, including the
market, though hunting is now banned, largely replaced by farming. The
even the two
species, the brown bear and the American black bear, are at risk of
in certain areas. In general these two species inhabit remote areas with little interaction with humans, and the main non-natural causes of mortality are hunting, trapping, road-kill and depredation.
Laws have been passed in many areas of the world
from . Public perception of bears is often positive, as people identify with bears due to their omnivorous diets, ability to stand on two legs, and symbolic importance, and support for bear protection is widespread, at least in more affluent societies. Where bears raid crops or attack livestock, they may come into conflict with humans. In poorer rural regions, attitudes may be more shaped by the dangers posed by bears and the economic costs they cause to farmers and ranchers.
Main article:
Several bear species are , especially in areas where they have b elsewhere, they generally avoid humans.
are rare, but are widely reported. Bears may attack humans in response to being startled, in defense of young or food, or even for predatory reasons.
The dancing bear by , 1822
Bears in captivity have for centuries been used for entertainment. They have been trained to , and were kept for
in Europe at least since the 16th century. There were five bear-baiting gardens in , L archaeological remains of three of these have survived. Across Europe,
bear handlers called
lived by busking with their bears from the 12th century.
A nomadic , a
bear-busker. Drawing by , 1888
for sport, food, and . Their meat is dark and stringy, like a tough cut of beef. In , bear paws are considered a delicacy. Bear meat should be cooked thoroughly, as it can be infected with the parasite .
The peoples of eastern Asia use bears' body parts and secretions (notably their gallbladders and bile) as part of . More than 12,000 bears are thought to be kept on farms in China, Vietnam, and South Korea for the production of bile. Trade in bear products is prohibited under , but bear bile has been detected in shampoos, wine and herbal medicines sold in Canada, the United States and Australia.
Further information: , , and
There is evidence of prehistoric , though this is disputed by archaeologists. The prehistoric ,
and more recently
considered the bear as the spirit of their forefathers. There is evidence of bear worship in early Chinese and . In many
cultures, the bear is a symbol of rebirth because of its hibernation and re-emergence. The image of the mother bear was prevalent throughout societies in North America and Eurasia, based on the female's devotion and protection of her cubs.
as depicted in , c. 1825
The constellations of Ursa Major and , the great and little bears, are named for their supposed resemblance to bears, from the time of . The nearby star
means "guardian of the bear", as if it were watching the two constellations. Ursa Major has been associated with a bear for as much as 13,000 years since
times, in the widespread
myths. These are found on both sides of the , which was lost to the sea some 11,000 years ago.
(1st century AD) claims that "when first born, [bears] are shapeless masses of white flesh, a lit their claws alone being prominent. The mother then licks them gradually into proper shape." This belief was echoed by authors of
throughout the medieval period.
Legends of
taming bears are common in the Alpine zone. In the arms of the bishopric of , the bear is the dangerous totem animal tamed by St.
and made to carry his civilised baggage over the mountains. Bears similarly feature in the legends of St. ,
and . This recurrent motif was used by the Church as a symbol of the victory of Christianity over paganism. In the Norse settlements of northern England during the 10th century, a type of "hogback" grave cover of a long narrow block of stone, with a shaped apex like the roof beam of a long house, is carved with a muzzled, thus Christianised, bear clasping each gable end, as in the church at
and across the British Isles.
Bears are popular in children's stories, including "", , , and "". The
has appeared in numerous comic books,
and films. The
began as greeting cards in 1982, and were featured as toys, on clothing and in film. Around the world, many children—and some adults—have ,
in the form of bears, named after the American statesman
when in 1902 he had refused to shoot an American black bear tied to a tree.
Onikuma from , c. 1841
orders the bear that killed his horse to carry his load.
"The Three Bears", 's illustration to English Fairy Tales, by , 1918
bear sacrifice.
scroll painting, c. 1870
Bears kill the youths who had insulted the Prophet . French, 1453
has been a common
for Russia from the 16th century onwards.
has become a part of American culture since his introduction in 1944, with his message "Only you can prevent wildfires". In the UK, the bear and staff feature on the heraldic arms of the county of . Bears appear in the
of two cities, Bern and , both of whose names include the word "bear".
Juvenile pandas at the
Research Base of Giant Panda Breeding
The International Association for Bear Research & Management, also known as the , and the
of the Species Survival Commission, a part of the
focus on the natural history, management, and conservation of bears. Bear Trust International works for wild bears and other wildlife through four core program initiatives, namely Conservation Education, Wild Bear Research, Wild Bear Management, and Habitat Conservation.
Specialty organizations for each of the eight species of bears worldwide include:
Vital Ground, for the brown bear
Moon Bears, for the Asiatic black bear
Black Bear Conservation Coalition, for the North American black bear
Polar Bears International, for the polar bear
Bornean Sun Bear Conservation Centre, for the sun bear
Wildlife SOS, for the sloth bear
Andean Bear Conservation Project, for the Andean bear
Chengdu Research Base of Giant Panda Breeding, for the giant panda
Ptolemy named the constellations in Greek, ?ρκτο? μεγ?λη (Arktos Megale) and ?ρκτο? μικρ? (Arktos Mikra), the great and little bears.
. Online Etymology Dictionary 2017.
Liddell, Henry G Scott, Robert. . A Greek-English Lexicon. Perseus Digital Library.
from the original on 30 November .
Sweet, Henry (1884) . The Clarendon Press, p. 202.
Welsey-Hunt, G. D.; Flynn, J. J. (2005). "Phylogeny of the Carnivora: basal relationships among the Carnivoramorphans, and assessment of the position of 'Miacoidea' relative to Carnivora". Journal of Systematic Palaeontology. 3 (1): 1–28. :.
Servheen, Christopher (1999). . IUCN. pp. 26–30.  .
Kemp, T. S. (2005). The Origin and Evolution of Mammals. Oxford University Press. p. 260.  .
Banyue, W Zhanxiang, Qiu (2005).
(PDF). Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History. 279 (279): 116–124. :.
(PDF) from the original on .
; Barnes, L. G.; Ray, C. E. (1994).
(PDF). Proceedings of the San Diego Society of Natural History. 29: 11–32.
Waits, Lisette (1999).
(PDF). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 13: 82–92. :.
Pàges, Marie (2008). "Combined analysis of fourteen nuclear genes refines the Ursidae phylogeny". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 47: 73–83. :.
Krause, J.; Unger, T.; No?on, A.; Malaspinas, A.; Kolokotronis, S.; Stiller, M.; Soibelzon, L.; Spriggs, H.; Dear, P. H.; Briggs, A. W.; Bray, S. C. E.; O'Brien, S. J.; Rabeder, G.; Matheus, P.; Cooper, A.; Slatkin, M.; P??bo, S.; Hofreiter, M. (2008). . BMC Evolutionary Biology. 8 (220): 220. :.  .  .
Soibelzon, L. H.; Tonni, E. P.; Bond, M. (2005). "The fossil record of South American short-faced bears (Ursidae, Tremarctinae)". Journal of South American Earth Sciences. 20 (1–2): 105–113. :.
Qiu Zhanxiang (2003).
(PDF). Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History. 279 (279): 18–31. :.
(PDF) from the original on 20 November 2009.
Ward and Kynaston, pp. 74–77
Liu, S Lorenzen, Eline D.; Fumagalli, M Li, Bo; Harris, K Xiong, Z Zhou, L Korneliussen, Thorfinn S Somel, M Babbitt, C Wray, G Li, J He, W Wang, Z Fu, W Xiang, X Morgan, Claire C.; Doherty, A O'Connell, Mary J.; McInerney, James O.; Born, Erik W.; Dalén, L Dietz, R Orlando, L Sonne, C Zhang, G Nielsen, R Willerslev, E Wang, Jun (2014). . Cell. 157 (4): 785–794. :.  .  .
Flynn, J. J.; Finarelli, J. A.; Zehr, S.; Hsu, J.; Nedbal, M. A. (2005). "Molecular phylogeny of the Carnivora (Mammalia): Assessing the impact of increased sampling on resolving enigmatic relationships". Systematic Biology. 54 (2): 317–37. :.  .
Yu, Li; Li, Yi-W Ryder, Oliver A.; Zhang, Ya-Ping (2007). . BMC Evolutionary Biology. 7 (198). :.
Simpson, George Gaylord (1945). . Bulletin of the AMNH. 85: 111–112.
Abella, J et al. (2012). "Kretzoiarctos gen. nov., the oldest member of the giant panda clade". PLOS ONE. 7 (11): e48985. :.
Kieren J. Mitchell, Sarah C. Bray, Pere Bover, Leopoldo Soibelzon, Blaine W. Schubert, Francisco Prevosti, Alfredo Prieto, Fabiana Martin, Jeremy J. Austin and Alan Cooper (2016). . Biology Letters. 12 (4): . :.  .  .
. National Geographic 2017.
. National Geographic 2017.
Anon (2010). . Marshall Cavendish. pp. 104–123.  .
Derocher, Andrew E.; Andersen, M Wiig, ?ystein (2005).
(PDF). Journal of Mammalogy. 86 (5): 895–901. :.
Hunt, R. M. Jr. (1998). "Ursidae". In Janis, Christine M.; Scott, Kathleen M.; Jacobs, Louis L. Evolution of Tertiary Mammals of North America, volume 1: Terrestrial carnivores, ungulates, and ungulatelike mammals. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. pp. 174–195.  .
Ward and Kynaston, pp. 124–125
Bunnell, Fred (1984). Macdonald, D., ed. The Encyclopedia of Mammals. Facts on File. p. 87.  .
Ward and Kynaston, pp. 117–121
Weissengruber, G. E.; Forstenpointner, G.; Kübber-Heiss, A.; Riedelberger, K.; Schwammer, H.; Ganzberger, K. (2001). . Journal of Anatomy. 198 (3): 309–14. :.  .  .
Schwartz, C. C.; Miller, S. D.; Haroldson, M. A. "Grizzly Bear". In Feldhamer, G.; Thompson, B.; Chapman, J. Wild Mammals of North A biology, management and conservation. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 562.  .
. National Park Service 2017.
Ruiqiang Li; Tian, G Zhu, H He, L Cai, J Huang, Q Cai, Q Li, Bo; Bai, Y Zhang, Z Zhang, Y Wang, W Li, J Wei, F Li, H Jian, M Li, J Zhang, Z Nielsen, R Li, D Gu, W Yang, Z Xuan, Z Ryder, Oliver A.; Leung, Frederick Chi-C Zhou, Y Cao, J Sun, X et al. (2010). . Nature. 463 (21): 311–317. :. :.  .  .
Ward and Kynaston, p. 83
Servheen, Christopher (1999). . IUCN. pp. 5–10.  .
Ward and Kynaston, p.52
Hamdine, W Thévenot, M Michaux, Jacques (1998). "Histoire récente de l'ours brun au Maghreb". Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences (in French). 321 (7): 565–570. :.
Nowak, R. M. (2005). Walker's Carnivores of the World. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 114.  .
Klinka, D. R.; Reimchen, T. E. (2002).
(PDF). Canadian Journal of Zoology. 80: . :.
Ward and Kynaston, 99
Sandell, M. (1989). "The mating tactics and spacing patterns of solitary carnivores". Carnivore behavior, ecology, and evolution. Springer. pp. 164–182. :.  .
Stonorov, D.; Stokes, A. W. (1972).
(PDF). 2. International Association for Bear Research & Management: 232–242. :.
Naughton, D. (2014). The Natural History of Canadian Mammals: Opossums and Carnivores. University of Toronto Press. pp. 218–219, 236, 251–252.  .
. North American Bear Center 2017.
Masterson, Linda (2016). Living With Bears Handbook: Expanded 2nd Edition. PixyJack Press. pp. 215–16.  .
Peters, G.; Owen, M.; Rogers, L. (2007).
(PDF). Acta Theriologica. 52 (4): 379–389. :.
Jordan, R. H. (1976). "Threat behavior of the black bear (Ursus americanus)". Bears: Their Biology and Management. 40: 57–63. :.
Ward and Kynaston, p. 130
Ward and Kynaston, p. 122
Nie, Y.; Swaisgood, R. R.; Zhang, Z.; Hu, Y.; Ma, Y.; Wei, F. (2012). "Giant panda scent-marking strategies in the wild: role of season, sex and marking surface". Animal Behaviour. 84 (1): 39–44. :.
Owen, M. A.; Swaisgood, R. R.; Slocomb, C.; Amstrup, S. C.; Durner, G. M.; Simac, K.; Pessier, A. P. (2014). "An experimental investigation of chemical communication in the polar bear". Journal of Zoology. 295 (1): 36–43. :.
Hwang, Mei-Hsiu (2002).
(PDF). Ursus. 13: 111–125.
Rue, Leonard Lee (1981). . Crown Publishers. p. 129.  .
Mattson, David J. (1998). "Diet and Morphology of Extant and Recently Extinct Northern Bears". Ursus, A Selection of Papers from the Tenth International Conference on Bear Research and Management, Fairbanks, Alaska, July 1995, and Mora, Sweden, September 1995. 10: 479–496.  .
Ryan, C Pack, James C.; Igo, William K.; Billings, Anthony (2007). "Influence of mast production on black bear non-hunting mortalities in West Virginia". Ursus. 18 (1): 46–53. :.
Lumpkin, S Seidensticker, John (2007). Giant Pandas. Collins. p. 63.  .
Ward and Kynaston, pp. 89–92
Dolberg, Frands (1 August 1992). . University of Arhus 2010.
Ward and Kynaston, p. 87
Joshi, A Garshelis, David L.; Smith, James L. D. (1997). "Seasonal and Habitat-Related Diets of Sloth Bears in Nepal". Journal of Mammalology. 1978 (2): 584–597. :.
Ward and Kynaston, p. 89
Ward and Kynaston, pp. 93–98
Zager, P Beecham, John (2006). "The role of American black bears and brown bears as predators on ungulates in North America". Ursus. 17 (2): 95–108. :.
Ward and Kynaston, p. 92
COSEWIC. Canadian Wildlife Service (2002).
Ward and Kynaston, p. 104
Eide, S.; Miller, S.
(PDF). Alaska Department of Fish and Game 2016.
Ward and Kynaston, pp. 138–141
Lariviere, S. (2001).
(PDF). Mammalian Species. 647: 1–11. :.
Ward and Kynaston, pp. 144–148
. Pandas International 2015.
Ward and Kynaston, p. 132
Bellemain, E.; Zedrosser, A.; Manel, S.; Waits, L. P.; Taberlet, P.; Swenson, J. E. (2006). . Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences. 273 (1584): 283–291. :.  .  .
Swenson, J. E.; Dahle, B.; Sandegren, F. (2001). . Ursus. 12: 81–91.  .
M?rner, T.; Eriksson, H.; Br?jer, C.; Nilsson, K.; Uhlhorn, H.,; ?gren, E.; af Segerstad, C.H.; Jansson, D.S.; Gavier-Widén, D. (2005). "Diseases and mortality in free-ranging brown bear (Ursus arctos), gray wolf (Canis lupus), and wolverine (Gulo gulo) in Sweden". Journal of wildlife diseases. 41 (2): 298–303. :.  .
Gerhard Heldmeier (2011). "Life on low flame in hibernation". Science. 331 (6019): 866–867. :.  .
Shimozuru, M.; et al. (2013). "Pregnancy during hibernation in Japanese black bears: effects on body temperature and blood biochemical profiles". Journal of Mammalogy. 94 (3): 618–627. :.
T?ien, ?.; et al. (2011). "Hibernation in Black Bears: Independence of Metabolic Suppression from Body Temperature". Science. 331 (6019): 906–909. :.  .
Biel, M; Gunther, K. . Yellowstone National Park. National Park Service 2016.
McTaggart Cowan, I. (1972). "The Status and Conservation of Bears (Ursidae) of the World: 1970". Bears: Their Biology and Management. 2: 343–367. :.
Seryodkin, Ivan (2006).
Far Eastern National University, Vladivostok, Russia. pp. 1–252.
Geptner, V. G., Sludskii, A. A. (1972). Mlekopitaiu??ie Sovetskogo Soiuza. Vys?aia ?kola, Moskva. (In R English translation: Heptner, V. G.; Sludskii, A. A.; Bannikov, A. G.; (1992).
Smithsonian Institution and the National Science Foundation, Washington DC). pp. 95–202.
Frasef, A. (2012). Feline Behaviour and Welfare. CABI. pp. 72–77.  .
David Prynn (2004). Amur tiger. Russian Nature Press. p. 115.
S et al. (2003). . Ursus. 14 (2): 159.
Kawanishi, K.; Sunquist, M. E. (2004). "Conservation status of tigers in a primary rainforest of Peninsular Malaysia". Biological Conservation. 120: 329–344. :.
Crum, James M.; Nettles, Victor F.; Davidson, William R. (1978). "Studies on endoparasites of the black bear (Ursus americanus) in the southeastern United States". Journal of Wildlife Diseases. 14 (2): 178–186. :.
Derocher, Andrew E. (2012). . JHU Press. p. 212.  .
. John Libbey Eurotext. p. 167.  .
Williams, Elizabeth S.; Barker, Ian K. (2008). . John Wiley & Sons. p. 203.  .
. WWF 2017.
Bacon, Heather (12 May 2008). . Vet Times 2017.
Pelton, Michael R.; Coley, Alex B.; Eason, Thomas H.; Doan M Diana L.; Pederson, Joel A.; van Manen, Frank T.; Weaver, Keith M. (1999). . IUCN. pp. 144–156.  .
Kellert, Stephen (1994). "Public Attitudes toward Bears and Their Conservation". Bears: Their Biology and Management. 9 (1): 43–50. :.  .
Andersone, ? Ozolin?, Jānis (2004). "Public perception of large carnivores in Latvia". Ursus. 15 (2): 181–187. :.
Goldstein, I Paisley, S Wallace, R Jorgenson, Jeffrey P.; Cuesta, F Castellanos, Armando (2006). "Andean bear–livestock conflicts: a review". Ursus. 17 (1): 8–15. :.
Fredriksson, Gabriella (2005). "Human–sun bear conflicts in East Kalimantan, Indonesian Borneo". Ursus. 16 (1): 130–137. :.
Clark, Douglas (2003).
(PDF). Ursus. 14 (1): 65–71.
Than, K. (2013). .
Findeizen, Nikolai (2008). . Indiana University Press. p. 201.  .
. Historic England. 26 September .
Fraser, Angus M. (1995). The Gypsies. Blackwell. pp. 45–48, 226.  .
from the original on 30 September .
. BBC News. 21 December .
Black, Richard (11 June 2007). . BBC News.
from the original on 18 November .
Wunn, Ina (2000). "Beginning of Religion". . 47 (4): 417–452. :.
Bonser, Wilfrid (1928). . Folklore. 39 (4): 344–358. :.  .
Chaussonnet, Valerie (1995). Native Cultures of Alaska and Siberia. Washington, D.C.: Arctic Studies Center. p. 112.  .
Lee, Jung Young (1981). Korean Shamanistic Rituals. Mouton De Gruyter. pp. 14, 20.  .
Kindaichi, Kyō Yoshida, Minori (Winter 1949). "The Concepts behind the Ainu Bear Festival (Kumamatsuri)". Southwestern Journal of Anthropology. 5 (4): 345–350. :.  .
Ward and Kynaston, p. 17
Ward and Kynaston, pp. 12–13
Liddell, Henry G Scott, Robert. . A Greek-English Lexicon. Perseus 2017.
Schaefer, Bradley E. The Origin of the Greek Constellations: Was the Great Bear constellation named before hunter nomads first reached the Americas more than 13,000 years ago?, , November 2006, Yuri Berezkin, . Folklore, 31, 0.
Pliny (1855). Bostock, J Riley, Henry T., ed. . p. 8.4].
Badke, David.
Pastoreau, Michel (2007). L'ours. Historie d'un roi déchu (in French). Seuil.  .
Hall, Richard (1995). Viking Age Archaeology. pp. 43 and fig. 22.  .
Elms, Alan C. (July–September 1977). ""The Three Bears": Four Interpretations". . 90 (357).  .
. BBC News. 24 December .
Kennedy, Patrick, ed. (1866). "The Brown Bear of Norway". . Macmillan. pp. 57–67.
Mallory, Michael (1998). Hanna-Barbera Cartoons. Hugh Lauter Levin. p. 44.  .
Browne, Ray B.; Browne, Pat (2001). . Popular Press. p. 944.  .
Holmes, Elizabeth (9 February 2007). .
(1 February 2013). . BBC 2017.
, 2, 23–24
. Telegraph. 23 April .
. Ad Council. .
from the original on .
. Buddy B?r Berlin. .
. Bear Trust International.
Ward, P.; Kynaston, S. (1995). Wild Bears of the World. Facts on File, Inc.  .
Domico, T Newman, Mark (1988). Bears of the World. Facts on File, Inc.  .
(1942). . Curley Publishing.  .
Brunner, Bernd (2007). Bears: A Brief History. Yale University Press.  .
Find more aboutBearsat Wikipedia's
from Wiktionary
from Commons
from Wikinews
from Wikiquote
from Wikisource
from Wikibooks
from Wikiversity
from Wikispecies
: Hidden categories:}
我要回帖
更多关于 fatmusicbear打不开了 的文章
更多推荐
- ·职业君人CPT和平精英训练营燃烧瓶在哪?· 职业君人CPT和平精英训练营燃烧瓶在哪?入营宣誓词
- ·多米诺骨牌的玩法大全简单有什么秘诀吗？
- ·数学建模大赛题目到底是个什么比赛？
- ·红警2最富有的地图共和国之辉哪个地图最大
- ·求ps2模拟器版机器人大战OGS的ps2金手指代码大全
- ·胃肠吻合器手术，胆肠吻合手术需要多长时间
- ·根据termterm sheet 法律效力可以做出captable吗
- ·西牛股小孩子高烧不退怎么办吃了管高烧么
- ·描写花的小古文牡丹花的古诗词
- ·人教版五年级上册语文第八单元习作怎么写
- ·在氧化铝生产用的用有机硅消泡剂zlhgcl和脱水剂，有谁知道有机硅消泡剂zlhgcl
- ·跨越架封网脚手架拆除旁站记录表谁知道咋写
- ·宝宝有感冒症状怎么办的症状，用英语怎么读？
- ·宇通高中怎么样，我家孩子现在初三，成绩不是很好，顶多能够宇通或者秦淮河的？​?
- ·酥油饼技术软件培训去哪里里好
- ·河南考生考2016福建理科考生人数专科需要什么条件
- ·小学五年级科学看的美国关于大自然的动物和动物节目（英文的）
- ·怎样判断2岁宝宝近视眼一顿喝几勺奶粉
- ·孩子嗓子起疱疹里起来疱疹怎么办
- ·为什么我的左胳膊血压要低于右胳膊血压比左胳膊低
- ·fatmusicbear被禁了吗怎么没了
- ·小学化简求值题1.25:1小学
- ·镀铝电解池阴极放电顺序中，金属铝为什么在阳极而不是阴极
- ·英语单词词性的缩写of前该填什么词性
- ·高考报名完成为什么苹果手机接收不到短信成功短信
- ·我的正常脉搏一分钟钟跳了103次，是正常吗
- ·鳞状上皮细胞癌抗原分析找到异形细胞是什么意思
- ·橡胶铁是不是重金属天然高分子化合物
- ·尾骨麻痛导致左腿麻木是什么原因痛怎么办
- ·如何在小学语文教学中学校正在开展传统文化化教育
- ·轻微腰间盘突出轻微突出，通过运动可以痊愈吗
- ·求助：有谁熟悉肠衣量码机套缩机的？
- ·星怎么写星 会意字字
- ·保持思想的先进性先进是什么
- ·Y=481277.288
- ·小鸟为什么会在为了天空飞翔的小鸟。？
