Cartography as Communication
2. Cartography as Communication
One of the most useful approaches to the study of cartography is to view
maps as a form of visual communication--a special-purpose language for
describing spatial relationships. Although it is perhaps unwise to draw
a direct analogy between cartography and language, concepts such as "grammar"
and "syntax" help to explain, at least metaphorically, the sorts of decisions
cartographers make as they compose maps. Cartographers seek to make use
of visual resources such as color, shape and pattern to communicate information
about spatial relationships. The analogy with language also helps explain
why training in principles of effective cartography is so important--it
allows us to communicate more effectively. Without a knowledge of some
of these basic principles, the beginning cartographer is likely to be misunderstood
or cause confusion.
2.1 Cartography is closely related to graphical
communication
Cartography is related to, but different from other forms of visual
communication. Cartographers must pay special attention to coordinate systems,
map projections, and issues of scale and direction that are in most cases
of relatively little concern to other graphic designers or artists. But,
because cartography is a type of graphical communication, some insights
to the demands of cartography can be gleaned from the literature of graphical
communication and statistical graphics. Often cartographers are faced with
some of the same challenges faced by graphical designers and can learn
much from their insights. As you begin to study cartographic design, you
may find it useful to consult some of the standard works on graphical communication.
You will find the following books particularly interesting, and maps are
often the focus of discussion.
Cleveland, William S. 1985. The Elements of Graphing Data. Monterey,
CA: Wadsworth.
Muehrcke, Phillip C. 1986. Map Use: Reading, Analysis, and Interpretation,
2nd ed. Madison, Wis.: JP Publications.
Schmid, Calvin F. 1983. Statistical Graphics: Design Principles and
Practices. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Tufte, Edward R. 1983. The Visual Display of Quantitative Information.
Cheshire, CT: Graphics Press.
Tufte, Edward R. 1990. Envisioning Information. Cheshire, CT: Graphics
2.2 Maps are symbolic abstractions--"generalizations"
or "representations"--of reality
Real view and generalized map display. Lake Winnipesauke, NH
By stressing cartography as a form of communication, it is easier to
make the point that maps are really symbolic abstractions--or representations--of
real world phenomena. In most cases, this means that the world represented
on a map has been greatly simplified, or generalized, with symbols being
used like words to stand for real things. Some of the most important decisions
cartographers make in the process of cartographic design revolve around:
1) how much to simplify the situ and 2) how to symbolize
the relationships being represented.
For further discussion of these issues, you may wish to consult:
Guelke, Leonard, Ed. 1977. The Nature of Cartographic Communication.
Cartographica Monograph No. 19.
Peterson, Gretchen N. 2009. GIS cartography: a guide to effective map design. Boca Raton: CRC Press.
Robinson, Arthur H. and Petchenik, Barbara B. 1976. The Nature of Maps:
Essays toward Understanding Maps and Mapping. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press.
Taylor, D.R.F., Ed. 1983. Progress in Contemporary Cartography. Volume
2: Graphic Communication and Design in Contemporary Cartography. New
York: John Wiley.分类学习站点
英语格言警句 Communication (C18)
The world would be happier if men had the same capacity to be silent that they have to speak.
- Baruch Spinoza
The most basic and powerful way to connect to another person is to listen. Just listen. Perhaps the most important thing we ever give each other is our attention.... A loving silence often has far more power to heal and to connect than the most well-intentioned words.
- Rachel Naomi Remen
Every criticism, judgment, diagnosis, and expression of anger is the tragic expression of an unmet need.
- Marshall Rosenberg
"What will they think of me?" must be put aside for bliss.
- Joseph Campbell
[A]ll change, even very large and powerful change, begins when a few people start talking with one another about something they care about.
- Margaret J. Wheatley
While you are proclaiming peace with your lips, be careful to have it even more fully in your heart.
- Francis of Assisi
You can't make your kids do anything. All you can do is make them wish they had. And then, they will make you wish you hadn't made them wish they had.
- Marshall Rosenberg
Live truth instead of expressing it.
- Elbert Hubbard
Perhaps the most important thing we bring to another person is the silence in us, not the sort of silence that is filled with unspoken criticism or hard withdrawal. The sort of silence that is a place of refuge, of rest, of acceptance of someone as they are.
We are all hungry for this other silence. It is hard to find. In its presence we can remember something beyond the moment, a strength on which to build a life.
Silence is a place of great power and healing.
- Rachel Naomi Remen
True eloquence consists in saying all that is necessary, and nothing but what is necessary.
- Heinrich Heine
There is an endless net of threads throughout the universe...
At every crossing of the threads there is an individual.
And every individual is a crystal bead.
And every crystal bead reflects
Not only the light from every other crystal in the net
But also every other reflection
Throughout the entire universe.
an adaptation of The Net of Jewels, or Indra's Net, one of the oldest written creations of humanity
- Anne Adams
The biggest mistake is believing there is one right way to listen, to talk, to have a conversation -- or a relationship.
- Deborah Tannen
Think like a wise man but communicate in the language of the people.
- William Butler Yeats
Sometimes there is a greater lack of communication in facile talking than in silence.
- Faith Baldwin
The single biggest problem in communication is the illusion that it has taken place.
- George Bernard Shaw
I'm a great believer that any tool that enhances communication has profound effects in terms of how people can learn from each other, and how they can achieve the kind of freedoms that they're interested in.
- Bill GatesThere are two barriers that often prevent communication between the young and their elders. The first is middle-aged forgetfulness of the fact that they themselves are no longer young. The second is youthful ignorance of the fact that the middle aged are still alive.
- Jessamyn WestThe most important things are the hardest to say, because words diminish them.
- Stephen KingWhen people talk, listen completely. Most people never listen.
- Ernest HemingwayYet, in spite of this world-wide system of linkages, there is, at this very moment, a general feeling that communication is breaking down everywhere, on an unparalleled scale.
- David BohmCommunication is a skill that you can learn. It's like riding a bicycle or typing. If you're willing to work at it, you can rapidly improve the quality of every part of your life.
- Brian TracyWe are more connected than ever before, more able to spread our ideas and beliefs, our anger and fears. As we exercise the right to advocate our views, and as we animate our supporters, we must all assume responsibility for our words and actions before they enter a vast echo chamber and reach those both serious and delirious, connected and unhinged.
- Bill ClintonCivilization grew in the beginning from the minute that we had communication -- particularly communication by sea that enabled people to get inspiration and ideas from each other and to exchange basic raw materials.
- Thor HeyerdahlThere's no use talking about the problem unless you talk about the solution.
- Betty WilliamsBad human communication leaves us less room to grow.
- Rowan D. WilliamsTalking is like there is as much in laying the hands on the strings to stop their vibration as in twanging them to bring out their music.
- Oliver Wendell HolmesThe way we communicate with others and with ourselves ultimately determines the quality of our lives.
- Anthony RobbinsBut behavior in the human being is sometimes a defense, a way of concealing motives and thoughts, as language can be a way of hiding your thoughts and preventing communication.
- Abraham MaslowCommunication is a continual balancing act, juggling the conflicting needs for intimacy and independence. To survive in the world, we have to act in concert with others, but to survive as ourselves, rather than simply as cogs in a wheel, we have to act alone.
- Deborah TannenWhen you have nothing to say, say nothing.
- Charles Caleb ColtonIf we try to listen we find it extraordinarily difficult, because we are always projecting our opinions and ideas, our prejudices, our background, our inclinations, when they dominate, we hardly listen at all to what is being said.... One listens and therefore learns, only in a state of silence, in which this whole background is in abeyance, then, it seems to me, it is possible to communicate.
- Jiddu KrishnamurtiThe real art of conversation is not only to say the right thing at the right place but to leave unsaid the wrong thing at the tempting moment.
- Dorothy NevillThe key to conversation at work is flexibility and understanding how what you say might be perceived by others.
- Deborah TannenA flourishing, morally credible media is a vital component in the maintenance of genuinely public talk, argument about common good.
- Rowan D. WilliamsTo effectively communicate, we must realize that we are all different in the way we perceive the world and use this understanding as a guide to our communication with others.
- Tony RobbinsI know that you believe you understand what you think I said, but I'm not sure you realize that what you heard is not what I meant.
- Robert McCloskeyTo listen well is as powerful a means of communication and influence as to talk well.
- John MarshallJaw jaw is better than war war.
- Winston ChurchillPeople change and forget to tell each other.
- Lillian HellmanMen and women belong to different species and communications between them is still in its infancy.
- Bill CosbyTechnique is communication: the two words are synonymous in conductors.
- Leonard BernsteinOne of the hardest things in life is having words in your heart that you can't utter.
- James Earl JonesWise men talk because they h fools, because they have to say something.
- PlatoGenerally speaking, the first nonviolent act is not fasting, but dialogue. The other side, the adversary, is recognized as a person, he is taken out of his anonymity and exists in his own right, for what he really is, a person. To engage someone in dialogue is to recognize him, have faith in him. At every step in the nonviolent struggle, at every level we try tirelessly to establish a dialogue, or reestablish it if it has broken down. When I say 'the other side,' that could be a group of persons or a government.
- Hildegard Goos-MayrInject a few raisins of conversation into the tasteless dough of existence.
- O. Henry相关热点：
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修改的建议：Communication Models
Communication Models
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Introduction
For decades, man has known the importance of communication. Today, with various means by which one can communicate, it has become much easier to communicate a message to the other party, than it was several decades ago.
Every organization, no matter what their expertise and where they are situated, and what scale they operate, realize and value the importance of good communication.
This communication for organizations takes place both within the organization as well as with other outside stakeholders outside.
Therefore, it is vital for any business organization to understand the communication models out there, so they can use them for enhancing effective communication in the organization.
Understanding Communication
Communication today is mainly of three types
Written communication, in the form of emails, letters, reports, memos and various other documents.
Oral communication. This is either face-to-face or over the phone/video conferencing, etc.
A third type of communication, also commonly used but often underestimated is non-verbal communication, which is by using gestures or even simply body movements that are made. These too could send various signals to the other party and is an equally important method of communication.
The basic flow of communication can be seen in the diagram below. In this flow, the sender sends a message to the receiver and then they share the feedback on the communication process.
The methods of communication too need to be carefully considered before you decide on which method to uses for your purposes. Not all communication methods work for all transactions.
Once the methods of communication have been understood, the next step would be to consider various communication models. Due to the importance of communication, different types of models have been introduced by experts over the years.
The models help the business organizations and other institutions to understand how communication works, how messages are transmitted, how it is received by the other party, and how the message is eventually interpreted and understood.
Different Communication Models
Let's have a look at some of the famous and frequently used communication models used nowadays.
Shannon's Model
One of the earliest models of communication that introduced was Claude Shannon's model. This was introduced in 1948.
This laid the foundation for the different communication models that we have today, and has greatly helped and enhanced the communication process in various fields. This model can be considered as the granddaddy of many later communication models.
Following is a simple illustration of this model.
The diagram above clearly illustrates how communication takes place, and also helps one to determine what could go wrong.
In Shannon's model, the information source typically refers to a person, who then sends a message with the use of a transmitter.
This transmitter could be any instrument today, from phones to computers and other devices. The signals that are sent and received can be vary depending on the method of communication.
The box at the bottom called NOISE refers to any signals that may interfere with the message being carried. This again would depend on the method of communication.
The receiver is the instrument or the person on the other side that receives the. This model is the simplest models to understand the workings of the communication process.
Berlo's Model
Another famous communication model is Berlo's model. In this model, he stresses on the relationship between the person sending the message and the receiver.
According to this model, for the message to be properly encoded and decoded, the communication skills of both the source and the receiver should be at best. The communication will be at its best only if the two points are skilled.
Berlo's model has four main components and each component has its own sub components describing the assisting factors for each.
Following is the illustration of this model.
Schramm's Model
Schramm on the other hand, emphasized in 1954 that both the sender and the receiver take turns playing the role of the encoder and the decoder when it comes to communication.
The following diagram illustrates the model proposed by Schramm.
These models have been followed by various other models such as the 'Helical' model, Aristotle's models and several other models.
You should always keep in mind that each of these models has both their advantages and disadvantages. While some communication models try to break down the whole process in order to make it easier to understand, they are not always as simple as they seem.
There are several complexities involved in communications models. This is one thing that needs to be carefully understood in the process of understanding how these models work.
Conclusion
You need to keep in mind that these complexities that accompany the communication models may only make understanding the communication much harder.
It is best that both parties, the source (sender) and the receiver, are clear about what they would like to discuss. This is also known as the context of the message.
This would make it much easier to decode what the other party is saying without too much trouble. The process of communication, if kept simple and to the point, should not usually have too many issues, and the message will be easily understood by both parties.
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