为什么说党的宗旨是区别于其他政党的显著标志
为什么说党的宗旨是区别于其他政党的显著标志
09-04-25 &匿名提问
党的工人阶级先锋队性质和全心全意为人民服务宗旨的体现,是中国共产党区别于其他政党的显著标志《中国共产党党章》 里的全部内容。
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就是每个党都要代表一个阶级的
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筏子与独木舟 我国不仅陆疆广大，而且河流众多，海域辽阔，因此中华民族不仅有一部光辉的陆上进化史，而且也有一部壮丽的水上开发史。而一部水上开发史必然也是一部舟船发展史。中国舟船发展史绵延数千年，最早还得从远古说起。在原始社会初期，先民们尚以渔猎和采集为生，他们的活动范围被局限于靠水很近的地域。但由于没有一定的工具，他们无法捕捞深水中的鱼群，无法狩猎河对岸的野兽，不仅如此，如遇洪水泛滥，他们甚至连生命都不能保全。恶劣的环境与求生的本能迫使人类去思考，人们开始寻求一种可以浮于水上的工具，以期猎取更多的食物和战胜洪水的危害。然而究竟什么东西能够浮于水面而不沉？长期与自然界的抗争不断增添着人们的智慧，自然现象的反复出现也给人以一定的启迪。“古者观落叶因以为舟”，（《世本》）“古人见窾木浮而知为舟”（《淮南子·说山训》），古人终于认识到某些物体具有浮性，自然漂浮物成为人们创造舟船工具的最早诱因。经过长期实践，古人创制了最早的水上交通工具——筏子，这是一种用树干或竹子并排扎在一起的扁平状物体。原始人在实践中认识到单根竹木虽具浮力，但因其为圆形，浮在水中易滚动且面积窄小，运载力有限，如将数根并扎，则在水中可平稳漂浮且运载量增加，既可载物又可载人。筏子，古时也称为“桴”、“泭”，或“箅”。继编木为筏之后，又有“刳木为舟”（《周易·系辞》）。“刳”是割开、挖空的意思，“舟”是指古代船舶的直系祖先——独木舟。它是一种用独根树干挖成的小舟，其制做过程是：先选用一棵粗大挺直的树干，将不准备挖掉的部位涂上湿泥，然后用火烧烤未涂湿泥的部位，待其呈焦炭状后，再用石斧等工具砍凿，这样疏松的焦炭层很快就被“刳”尽，如此反复多次，独木终被“刳”成带槽的舟。有了舟，人们尚不能在水中随意行驶，还必须有推动独木舟行进的工具。“剡木为楫”（《周易·系辞》），即是指古人制桨的方法，“剡”的意思是削。“楫，捷也，拨水使舟捷疾也”（《释名·释船》）。削木头做成桨，以推进舟的行驶。在舵未出现以前，桨还有控制方向的作用。独木舟与桨相配合，人们才可较随意地在水面上活动。“舟楫之利以济不通，致远以利天下。”（《周易注疏》卷4）独木舟具体出现的时代尚不能断定。但1977年在浙江余姚河姆渡新石器时代遗址中，出土一柄用整木“剡”成的木桨，(25)这表明至迟在大约七千年前，我国已开始使用独木舟，同时也说明，我国发明和使用舟船的历史较之车马出现的时代要早数千年之久。新石器时代的独木舟目前尚未见有实物出土，但晚于原始社会的独木舟，解放后却多有发现，据不完全统计已达二十余只。这些古独木舟已成为研究早期独木舟形制的重要依据。从后世的独木舟看，我国古代独木舟的形制，大致有三种：一种头尾均呈方形，不起翘，接近平底；一种呈头尖尾方形，舟头起翘；（图14）一种头尾均呈尖形，两头起翘。从舟体外形变化来看，第一种应属时代较早的一种，随着行驶经验的积累，人们认识到舟头部尖形比方形省力，且速度快，于是出现第二种形制，继而产生了第三种。独木舟的优点就在于一个“独”字，舟身浑然一体，严整无缝，不易漏水，不会松散，而且制作工艺简单，所以沿用的历史很长，直至今日，在我国西南少数民族地区，独木舟还被用作渡河工具。 筏子与独木舟的相继出现，是人类开拓水域交通迈出的第一步。有了它们，人类的活动范围便从陆地扩大到水上，人类从此可以跨江渡河，使地域上的阻隔失去了原有的威力。 二、木板船的诞生 筏子与独木舟都还不是理想的水上交通工具。筏子的干舷(26)非常低，装载量一大，筏子便浸没在水中。而独木舟的大小则受到木材的限制，且要想通过改进舟形来提高行舟速度也很困难。人类进入奴隶社会以后，生产力有了较大的发展，不仅水上运输活动日渐频繁，而且载重量也日渐增加，筏子与独木舟的“短处”便更为明显地暴露出来。在独木舟的基础上，人们创制出新型的船——木板船。木板船的问世，在我国可以追溯到遥远的商代。商代甲骨文中的舟字，写作：■、■、■，均是象形字，在一定程度上反映了商代船的结构：它已不是独木刳成的舟，而是用数块木板组装的木板船。这表明，至迟在三千年前的商代，我国就已完成了由独木舟到木板船的变革，且此时的木板船已具有成熟的形制。当然，这一变革并非一蹴而就，而是奴隶们长期实践，不断改进，逐渐创新的结果。雏型的木板船是非常简陋的，它无非是在独木舟的基础上加装木板，以扩大独木舟的装载量。这种改进的独木舟在考古资料中曾有发现。1975年江苏武进出土了一条汉代木船，(27)船体是用三块木料拼接而成的，它已脱离原始独木舟的形制。以后，人们干脆抛开独木舟，直接用木板造船。早期的木板船是由一块底板和两块弦板组成的最简单的“三板船”。至今在我国广西一些河窄滩多，水道曲折的地方还能见到这种原始木板船的踪影。全船仅由三块板构成，底板两端经火烘烤向上翘起，两侧舷板合入底板，然后用铁钉连接，板缝用刨出的竹纤维堵塞，最后涂以油漆。商代尚未有铁钉和油漆，因此想必当时制造这种三板船时或靠榫卯连接，或用藤蔓、兽皮条等缚扎。板缝则用草秆、麻丝、竹茹之类的纤维物质塞堵。另外从甲骨文“■”字的结构上看，在船的首尾部位还各加有一、二根横木，使船体联接得更加牢固。这种三板船是后世各类舢板船的祖先。年在河北平山战国时期中山国一号墓的南侧发现一大型葬船坑，出土三条大船、两条小船和若干支木桨。(28)这五条船是目前我国所见时代最早的木板船实物。从独木舟到木板船是我国古代造船史上的一次重大飞跃。至此，人类不再受自然界所提供的木材形状和体积大小的限制，而能够根据人的意愿，对材料进行加工了。在这一基础上，此后的各种弘舸巨舰、楼船方舟也陆续产生，从而给古代漕运、海上交通、水战带来了众多辉煌壮观的场面。舟船的出现原本是人类为了满足载货、运输和生产的需要，但在奴隶制社会的夏、商、周时期，舟船和马车一样，也成为战争的工具。史籍中有明确记载的水战发生在公元前549年。《左传》记载：“鲁襄公二十四年（前549年）夏，楚子为舟师以伐吴。”杜注：“舟师，水军。”可见春秋时期大规模的船战已登上战争舞台。当时地处长江中游的楚国、太湖流域的吴国、钱塘江流域的越国和济水流域的齐国都非常重视发展战舰，建设舟师，因而水军力量以这四国最为强大，船战也常常在这四个国家之间发生。战舰是从民用船只发展起来的，但由于战舰既要装备进攻武器，又要防御敌舰攻击，所以其结构和性能均比民用船只要优越得多。因此可以说，战舰是当时造船技术水平的最高体现。从文献记载看，当时各国水军的战舰种类繁多，有“艅艎”、“三翼”、“突冒”、“楼船”、“戈船”、“桥舡”等等。艅艎 又称余皇。船头装饰“鹢首”，专供国君乘坐，因此又称“王舟”。战时则作为指挥旗舰。三翼指大翼、中翼、小翼，即三种同类型轻捷战舰的合称。突冒 一种冲突敌阵的小型战船。戈船 一种船上安有戈矛的战船。 这些战舰仿照陆军的车战形式而编制：艅艎相当于陆军的旄车（指挥车），大翼舰有如重车（革车），中翼舰有如冲陷车，小翼舰有如轻车，突冒船相当于陆军的冲车，楼船相当于陆军的行楼车，桥舡船相当于陆军的轻骑兵。(29)这些不同类型、不同用途的战舰组成强大的舟师，有如现在由各种舰艇组成的混合舰队。由单纯的泛舟渡河，到大规模的水战；从简陋的三板船到各类战舰的建造，表明当时的造船技术已有了长足的进步。有的诸侯国还建立了专门造船的工场——船宫。(30)先秦时期的战舰实物，迄今为止，还没有发现。但是从战国青铜器上的“水陆攻战”纹饰中，（图15）(31)可以窥知当时战舰的大致结构：船体窄长，船分上下两层，下层有三、四个佩带短剑的划桨手，身体前弓，正奋力操桨划船。为减少伤亡，保证战舰攻守自如，桨手藏于船舱之内。上层则站立有四、五个击鼓、射箭、挥戈剑的武士，正与对方格斗。从每只战舰仅有七或九人来看，这种双层战舰属于一种轻型小舰，适于近战，很可能就是文献记载中三翼舰中的一种。 古老中国 秦汉造船的高峰 一部中国舟船发展史，上下数千年，可以分为三个主要发展时期——秦汉、宋元和明。秦汉是我国造船史上的第一个高峰时期，船只类型多，规模大，行船动力、系泊设施基本完备。公元前221年，秦始皇以武力灭关东六国，统一了中国，在造船业上，继承和发展了原来六国中一些国家发达的造船技术，建造了许多轻舟巨舸，使当时的船舶航行已经能够通江达海。秦代的船实物，目前尚未发现，但在广州却发现一处规模巨大的秦汉造船工场。(32)该船场中心部分平行排列着三个造船台，滑道长度都在88米以上。其中1号、2号两个船台都是由枕木、滑板和木墩组成的水平式船台。2号船台宽5.6—8.4米，以此长度和宽度计算，该船台可建造宽6—8米，长20—30米，载重50—60吨的大型木船。若1、2号两船台并台造船，则可以造出载容量更大的船只。据专家考证，这个造船场是秦代统一岭南时建造的，汉代继续沿用。它从一个侧面反映了秦汉时期造船业的生产能力和技术水平。汉承秦制，造船业出现了前所未有的蓬勃发展局面。船只因用途不同，在制造形式上也划分成许多种类：艑 是一种内河运输船。《正字通》：“形扁，故呼为扁子。”《通雅》释为浅船。艇 是一种形狭而长的小船。《释名·释船》：“二百斛以下曰艇，其形径挺，一二人所乘行者也。”■ 是一种体型短宽的运输船。《释名·释船》：“三百斛曰斛。■，貂也；貂，短也。江南所名，短而广安，不倾危者也。”可见■主要流行于江南一带。■ 是一种航海大船。《说文·舟部》和《广韵》中，均称■为汉代海中的大船。 舲 是一种内河小船。《广韵》称：舲为上有小屋而设窗的船。舫 又称“方”或双帮船。晋郭璞说：“舫，并两舟也”，即两船并联一体的船。《史记·张仪传》记载：“舫船载卒，一舫载五十人与三月之食，下水而浮。”斗舰 是一种有防御装置的战舰。《释名·释船》：“上下重床（板），曰槛（同舰）。四方施板以御矢石，其内如牢槛也。”先登用于运送士兵登陆攻击的前驱快艇。即“军行在前曰先登，登之以向敌阵也”（《释名·释船》）。斥候 一种用于观察敌阵的小船。“五百斛以下，还有小屋，曰斥候，以视敌进退也”（《释名·释船》）。赤马舟轻巧速疾的小船。艨艟 一种进攻型的轻捷小战船。“外狭而长曰蒙冲。以冲突敌船也”（《释名·释船》）。外部用生牛皮蒙覆，两舷开有划桨孔，左右设有“弩窗矛穴”，敌船难以接近，又不怕矢石攻击，便于快速攻敌。楼船是汉代最富盛名的一种船，也是最能反映汉代造船技术水平的一种船。楼船，顾名思义，就是在船上建楼，一般是根据船只的大小在甲板上建楼数层，最高可达三层。每一层都有专门名称：“船上屋曰庐，象舍也。其上重室曰飞庐，在上故曰飞也。又在其上曰雀室，于中候望，若鸟雀之惊视也。”（《释名·释船》）广州东汉墓曾出土过一件木制船模，其舱房是双层的，(33)可称之为“飞庐”楼船。楼船的种类很多，用途也很广。在军事上，它是水军作战的主力战舰，因此汉代水军统帅也有“楼船将军”之称。以上所述汉代各类舟船，均见于文献记载，至今还没有发现遗存的实物。但汉代的舟船模型在江陵、长沙、广州等地却时有发现，这为人们了解汉代舟船的结构提供了弥足珍贵的资料。如1956年广州西郊西汉墓中出土一具木质船模，(34)此船模当为内河航行之舲船模型。（图16）1955年广州东汉墓也出土一件陶制船模。(35)据估计，这种船长约20米左右，是一种中型内河客货船。 随着造船技术的发展，不仅舟船的种类日益增多，而且各种行船设施也日趋完善。人类建造舟船，其目的不仅能浮于水面，顺流漂泊，而且要能按照人们的意愿在水中航行。然而无论是逆水行舟，还是停船靠岸，都需要有驾驭船只的推进工具。汉船的推进工具有：篙 一种撑船工具。用篙支撑河底使船前进。因为篙与筏子同期出现，所以说篙是时代最早、形制最简单的推进工具。为了便于用篙撑船，一般船的船舷或船尾部都修建有撑篙用的走廊，这是我国船舶结构的独有特征。后世，按篙钻形状和用途不同，篙又有挽篙、独钻、叉篙、钩篙和桡板篙之分。桨 一种用人力推进舟船的木质工具。其出现时期几乎与篙相同或稍晚。人手握桨柄，用桨板向后划水，通过水的反作用力推动船只前进。桨在汉代又叫楫、札、棹。《释名·释船》：“在旁拨水曰棹。棹，濯也，濯于水中也，且言使舟棹进也。又谓之札，形似札也。又谓之楫，楫捷也，拨水使舟捷疾也。”最初多为短桨，随着船体的增大，干舷的增高，又出现了长桨。桨越多，船行速度也越快。从出土的汉船模型看，当时已有用五桨、十桨划的木船，最多还有用十六桨的。橹 古代又称“樐”、“橹”，是一种效率较高，兼能控制航向的人力推进工具。《释名·释船》：“在旁曰橹，橹膂也，用膂力然后舟行也。”它是在舵桨的基础上发展演变而来的。其特点是“摇”。舵桨的操作方式从“划”变为鱼尾式的摇动，就形成了从桨到橹的质变。只要在橹手处施加不大的力，就能产生较大的推力，所以效率大大高于桨。橹是中国在人力推进工具上独具一格的发明，是我国劳动人民对世界造船业的贡献之一。帆 又称篷。张挂在桅杆上的驶风装置。利用风对帆面的压力推船前进。帆的出现大约在商代。至汉代，帆已普遍使用。桅 又称桅杆、椳、樯。有帆必有桅。桅是竖立在船上用以挂帆驶风的粗木杆。汉代已有此名称。《释名·释船》：“前立柱曰桅。桅，巍也。巍，高貌也。”在航行中，避浅滩、绕礁石，准确地掌握和控制航行方向，是一件至关重要的大事。小船上的篙或桨既是行船的动力，又可兼作定向工具。至汉代，船体逐渐增大，推进工具与定向工具的分工也日益明确，出现了一种专司方向的舵桨。1951年在湖南长沙西汉墓中出土的木船模和1974年在湖北江陵西汉墓中出土的木船模，(36)其尾部的舷边上均置有一长木桨，显然它已不是作为划水之用，而是用于控制方向。在舵桨的基础上，继而又产生了通过自身转动控制航向的工具——舵。广州东汉墓出土的那只陶制船模，其船尾就有一支舵，这是目前所见时代最早的古舵形象。舵不但见诸出土文物，文献中也有记载。《释名·释船》：“其尾曰柁（即舵）。柁，拕也，在后见拕曳也，且弼正船使顺流不使他戾也。”为了使船能停泊于水中，人们又发明了靠泊工具——矴和锚。一般来讲，先有矴、后有锚。矴，又写作碇，“系石为碇”（《三国志·吴书·董袭传》），就是说用绳索缚石，沉于水底或掷于岸边，利用其重量以定船身。所以停船也叫“下碇”，开船可称“启碇”。广州出土的东汉陶船模，其首部系有一物，正视呈“十”字形，侧视为“■”形，已有后世多齿锚的特点。所以专家称之为“石锚”。这是目前所能见到的最早的锚。 四、造船技术的缓慢发展 自三国两晋南北朝至隋唐五代，在这漫长的七百多年里，我国船舶事业的发展虽然进入一个低潮期，但并未停滞不前，而是在缓慢地前进、发展，在为我国造船史上第二个高峰的到来积聚着物质与技术的力量。这一时期的船舶制造有两个方面值得提出来。1.沙船的出现沙船是我国古代四大航海船型之一（另三种是福船、广船、鸟船）。如前所述，中国古船种类繁多，但如果仅从船体型制来看，它们大致又可归为两大类：方头平底船型和尖首尖底船型。沙船就是前一类船型的代表。它是在古代平底船基础上发展起来的一种船型。据专家考证，沙船始造于唐代的崇明岛，“以出崇明沙而得名”。(37)其船型特征是：平底，方首方尾，尾部出方艄，身长体宽而且扁。正由于沙船具有宽、大、扁、浅的特征，但如果仅从船体型制来看，它们大致又可归为两大类：方头平底船型和尖首尖底船型。沙船就是前一类船型的代表。它是在古代平底船基础上发展起来的一种船型。据专家考证，沙船始造于唐代的崇明岛，“以出崇明沙而得名”。(37)其船型特征是：平底，方首方尾，尾部出方艄，身长体宽而且扁。正由于沙船具有宽、大、扁、浅的特征所以它具有以下这些优点：其一，船形宽大，横摇角度小。首尾俱方，又增强了抗纵摇的阻力。船身扁浅，使重心降低；上层舱房少，使受风面积减小，因而不易倾覆。再加上船舷两侧装有披水板、梗水木、太平篮等安全设备，所以沙船的稳定性居诸船型之首。在七级大风下，其它船型的船均要进港避风，唯有沙船可以与狂风巨浪搏击，仍旧航行无阻。所以后世有人赞道：“诸船唯此（沙船）最稳”（明《兵录》）。其二，因是平底，吃水浅，不易搁浅，尤适宜在浅滩上行驶，“恃沙行，以寄泊，船因底平少搁无碍”（清《日知录集释》）。因此我国沿海的浅海水域广为使用沙船，特别是在江浙一带最为流行。其三，吃水浅弥补了方头增加阻力这一缺陷，所以沙船航速较快，驾驶起来轻便灵活。其四，船体宽大，可多置桅帆，充分利用风力。其适航性强，不但顺风逆风可航行，甚至逆风顶水也能航行。正因为沙船具有这些优点，所以产生以后，便很快为官方和民间广泛采用，不仅用作各式客、货民用船，而且也充当各类军用战船，成为唐宋元明清各代内河、近海、远洋船舶中的主要船型之一。沙船在唐代定型，宋朝称“防沙平底船”，元代名“平底船”，明嘉靖初年已通称“沙船”。元明时期是它发展的鼎盛时期。成为唐宋元明清各代内河、近海、远洋船舶中的主要船型之一。沙船在唐代定型，宋朝称“防沙平底船”，元代名“平底船”，明嘉靖初年已通称“沙船”。元明时期是它发展的鼎盛时期（图17） 2.设置水密舱将船舱用隔舱板隔成数间，并予以密封，这种被隔开的舱称为水密舱。很长一段时期内，人们一直认为“中国水密隔舱的建造始于宋代”。但江苏扬州(38)和如皋(39)唐船的出土则纠正了这一说法。扬州唐船的船体用木板隔成了五个大舱和若干小舱。如皋唐船则分九个舱。船舱和船底用铁钉钉牢，缝间用石灰、桐油填塞。设置水密舱具有许多优越性：其一，在发生触礁的意外事故中，即便有一、二个船舱破裂漏水，其他船舱也不致进水。这样船仍有浮力，不会沉没，从而提高了船舶的抗沉性能，大大增加了船舶航行的安全保险系数。其二，隔舱板和船体紧密钉合，从横向支撑船体，增强了船体的抗压能力。另外船上分舱，也便于货物的装卸和保管。正因为水密舱具有这些优点，所以同时期的外国船只在触礁船体破裂的意外事故中，很快葬身海底。而同样情况下，中国的海船却能够继续航行，安全返港维修。所以说，水密舱的出现也是中国对世界造船技术的一大贡献。世界其他国家直到18世纪末，才吸收了我国这一先进技术，开始在船上设置水密舱。
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中国古代历代王朝管理民族事务，管辖少数民族地区的制度。它是中国古代政治制度的组成部分。 沿革 中国自古就是一个多民族国家，历代王朝都设有管理民族事务的机构，对少数民族地区采取了一定的管理办法。 周朝 设置“大行人”，“掌大宾客之礼仪”，接待远方宾客。在六官中,大行人属秋官,后来还设过“小行人”。此外，还设“象胥”，掌“异国”来使的语言翻译。 秦汉 秦统一六国建立了夏夷统一的中央集权制封建帝国。 秦时称华夏族为 “主人”，而称其他民族为“客”。秦朝中央设“典客”，“掌诸归义蛮夷”。秦将非华夏族的地方行政区划分为两类：①在被征服的少数民族地区设道，不设县。②在归降的少数民族地区分别设置属邦（又称臣邦、外臣邦），设臣邦君长或臣邦君公统领其地。为管理这些属邦，中央职官中设典属邦（汉改称典属国）。《汉书·公卿百官表》载：“典属国、秦官，掌蛮夷降者”。 汉承秦制。景帝中元六年(公元前 177)改典客为大行令,“掌诸归义蛮夷”。武帝太初元年(公元前104)又改大行令为大鸿胪。大鸿胪设行人、译官、别火及郡邸长丞。其中行人、译官，汉初已设置；别火，为狱令官；郡邸长丞，是管理各郡、各属国“邸在京师者”。王莽时曾改大鸿胪为典乐。汉朝对少数民族的管辖，在地方行政区划方面基本上承袭秦制：①在原有的和新征服的少数民族地区的郡以下设道，汉朝共设32个道。②在归降的少数民族设属国。如武帝元狩三年(公元前120),匈奴昆邪王降汉，汉朝把他们从河西走廊迁到黄河以南的陇西、北地、上郡、朔方、云中五郡的故塞外，分设五个属国管辖。汉朝的属国与道不同，它一方面臣属汉朝，另一方面又保存民族原来的“国号”和风俗习惯。属国置都尉、丞、侯、千人等官。汉朝中央也设典属国，专门管理各属国事宜,属官有九译令。汉成帝河平元年(公元前28)，撤销典属国，并入大鸿胪。 魏晋南北朝 自三国至北魏，各朝大都设有大鸿胪，并置谒者仆射或鸿胪卿等官职，负责管理少数民族事务。只有梁朝置十二卿,鸿胪为冬卿,改大鸿胪为鸿胪寺；后周设宾部。 隋唐 隋袭梁制，称鸿胪寺。唐初亦设鸿胪寺，高宗龙朔年间（661～663）改为同文寺，武则天光宅元年(684)改为司宾寺,中宗神龙年间(705～706)又恢复为鸿胪寺，“掌宾客及凶仪”，置寺卿以掌其事，另设典客署，专司民族工作事宜。鸿胪寺在民族事务方面的职责有：①“凡四方夷狄君长朝见者,辨其等位,以宾待之”；②凡“夷狄君长之子袭官爵者,皆辨其嫡庶,详其可否”；③“若诸蕃人酋渠有封礼命，则受册而往其国”。典客署具体掌管“四夷归化在蕃者之名数”，对各地来京的少数民族首领，“凡朝贡、宴享、送迎，皆领马。辨其等位,供其职事”。“凡酋渠首领朝见者,皆馆供之。如疾病死丧,量事给之。还蕃,则佐其辞谢之节”（《旧唐书·职官志》）。唐朝分关内为十道，道设府、州、县；对所属少数民族地区，“即其部落列置州县”，“其大者多都督府”，统称为羁縻州。唐最盛时，辖有少数民族地区的府、州共 856处。少数民族地区的府、州，皆属十道中边境的都督府或都护府管辖，并由当地少数民族的首领任都督、刺史，“皆得世袭”。 宋朝 宋元丰年间()设鸿胪寺，置鸿胪寺卿，掌“四夷朝贡、宴劳、给赐、送迎之事”。“凡四夷君长、使价朝见，辨其等位，以宾礼待之，授以馆舍而颁其见辞、赐予、宴设之式，戒有司先期办具；有贡物，则具其数报四方馆，引见以进。诸蕃封册，即行其礼命”（《宋史·职官志五》）。宋时鸿胪寺既掌管国内所属少数民族事务，也管理与外国通使等事宜。南宋时，废鸿胪寺，民族事务归礼部管理。宋朝废都护府、都督府一类建置，羁縻州、县由邻近的正州（非羁縻性质的州）管辖。 金 辽、金设部族节度使，以统领藩部各族。辽称“部族节度使司”，金称“诸部族节度使”。金朝除置节度使、节度副使、判官之外，还设有知法、司吏、通事、译人等官。 元朝 中央不设鸿胪寺，“凡朝会、即位、册后、建储、奉上尊号及外国朝觐之礼”，由礼部的侍仪司掌管；“接伴引见诸番蛮夷峒官之来朝贡者”，由礼部的会同馆掌管。元朝中央设总管政务的中书省，地方的最高行政机构是行中书省（简称行省）。全国分置十个行省。行省以下设路、府、州、县。元代对各少数民族实行诸制并举的管理体制。北方少数民族地区统归各行省管辖，在契丹、女真、党项、羌等少数民族聚居区，一般都设路、府、州、县统治，“皆赋役之，比于内地”。对西藏，中央“立总制院,而领以国师”(指藏传佛教大师八思巴)。总制院,“掌浮图氏之教，兼治吐蕃之事”(《元史·桑哥列传》)。至元十七年（1280），立都功德使司，“掌奏帝师所统僧人并吐蕃军民等事”（《元史·世祖纪》）。至元二十五年(1288)，援引唐制吐蕃来朝见于宣政殿的典故，总制院更名为宣政院。西藏为宣政院辖地，下设乌斯藏宣慰司、朵甘斯宣慰司等统属。元朝对黑龙江边远地区的水达达、女真人，在辽阳行省之下设合兰府、水达达路等,各仍其俗，随俗而治,以相统摄。四川行省设上罗计、下罗计等长官司和四十六囤蛮夷千户所等，以管辖“诸部蛮夷”。云南诸路行省设丽江路军民宣抚司、大理金齿等处宣慰司都元帅府、乌撒乌蒙宣慰司；湖广行省设管番民总管、海北海南道宣慰司、八番顺元蛮夷官、沿边溪洞宣慰使司等，设蛮夷官，分别治理当地少数民族。元朝中央还设有都护府，“掌领旧州城及畏吾儿之居汉地者，有词讼则听之”。至元十一年（1274），“初置畏吾儿断事官”。十七年，“改领北庭都护府”。 明朝 恢复鸿胪寺，并设过九关通事、外夷通事等官，掌少数民族事务。还设有提督四夷馆，掌国内外各种民族文字的“译书之事”。从永乐五年(1407)起，设蒙古、女真、西番、西天、回回、百夷、高昌、缅甸八馆，置译字生、通事，翻译语言文字。正德年间 () ，增设八百馆；万历年间()，又增设暹罗馆。明朝在全国分置十三个布政使司，分领天下府州县及羁縻诸司。“又置十五都指挥使司以领卫所番汉诸军，其边境海疆则增置行都指挥使司”。在少数民族地区，行政区划主要有三种形式：①沿袭唐制，设羁縻之府十九、州四十七、县六。②推行土司制，全国有土官宣慰司十一，宣抚司十，安抚司二十二，招讨司一，长官司一百六十九，蛮夷长官司五。③在西藏设朵甘乌斯藏行都指挥使司，并广封当地佛教各派法王。 清朝 设鸿胪寺，但只管朝会、宾飨赞相礼仪，不管民族事务。中央设管理民族事务的理藩院，其职位与六部等同。理藩院的机构和职责是逐步扩大的。清入关前，崇德元年(1636)便设蒙古衙门，专理蒙古事务。蒙古各部尽归服于清之后，崇德三年(1638)蒙古衙门改名为理藩院，以后其职权扩大为全面管理全国的民族事务。从咸丰五年(1855)起，理藩院与礼部协同，分管一部分外交事务。光绪三十二年(1906)，理藩院更名为理藩部。理藩院的主要机构有 6个：①旗籍清吏司，掌考内扎萨克(即内蒙古)的二十四部四十九旗疆里，“畴封爵，辨谱系。凡官属、部众会盟，军旅邮传，并隶治之”；同时，还兼稽归化城土默特、黑龙江布特哈等游牧内属各部。②王会清吏司,“掌内扎萨克宾礼,典朝觐、贡献仪式。凡飨赉、馆饩,视等级以为差”。③典属清吏司,掌包括外蒙古、青海蒙古及新疆金山、天山之间各部在内的“外扎萨克”各部旗封爵、置邮驿、颁屯田、互市政令；同时兼稽游牧内属的察哈尔、额鲁特、乌梁海、哈萨克等部。④柔远清吏司,“掌治外扎萨克众部,凡嘛、番僧禄廪、朝贡，并司其仪制”。⑤徕远清吏司，“掌回部扎萨克、伯克岁贡年班”，及四川土司之政令，并掌回城卡伦外各民族的职贡。⑥理刑清吏司，“掌蒙古、番、回刑狱诤讼”（《清史稿·职官二》）。理藩院的直属机构还有:“主章奏文移”的蒙古译房;“主宾馆缮完除”的内馆、外馆，为培养熟谙蒙文、藏文、托忒文人才的蒙古官学，唐古特学和托忒字，编拟理藩院则例的则例馆等。 清朝全国地方行政区域分为省、府(州、厅)、县三级，省设总督、巡抚以统辖。府设知府等官。同时，清朝还“自畿辅达各省，东则奉、吉、黑，西回、藏，北包内外蒙古，分列将军、都统及大臣镇抚之”。对少数民族地区的统治，除了西南各省相当一部分实行改土归流以外，其他少数民族地区大都采取了不同于内地府州县制的组织，主要有 5种形式：①在内、外蒙古及青海、新疆、西藏等地派驻将军、都统、副都统或办事大臣等军政大员，分别统管当地少数民族事务。如在内蒙古设有察哈尔都统、副都统，热河都统,绥远城将军,归化城副都统等官。这些军政大员的职责是“掌镇守险要，绥和军民，均齐政刑，修举武备”。②在蒙古地区实行盟旗制度,分全国蒙古族为19盟、203旗，除察哈尔、归化土默特、准噶尔和呼伦贝尔等蒙旗之外，各旗都设扎萨克（旗长）,旗以上是盟,设盟长。旗扎萨克和盟长，都由中央王朝委派蒙古王公贵族担任。③在新疆维吾尔族地区,沿用当地的伯克制,各城设阿奇木伯克等官。阿奇木伯克为伯克中最高的职位,“掌综回务”;其次为伊克罕伯克,“掌赞理回务”；再次为噶杂拉齐伯克,“掌地亩粮赋”，以及商伯克、哈资伯克等。各城的伯克都听命于驻防大臣。④在西藏，由驻藏大臣统辖全西藏的政教事宜。以达赖嘛掌全藏政令,驻拉萨;班禅嘛掌后藏寺院与其教民，驻扎什伦布。达赖和班禅都“受成于驻藏大臣”。“藏地分卫、藏、喀木、阿里四部，各置噶布伦治其地,职任綦重。仔以降,为佐理国事官。戴以降，为各城典兵官。边营官以降，为各城治民官”。西藏的僧官，“有国师、禅师、扎萨克大嘛、扎萨克嘛、大嘛、副嘛，并堪布监督之”。自国师至嘛，专司教事。⑤在西南各省和甘肃一些少数民族地区，沿袭明制，设置文武土官，由当地少数民族头人、贵族自理其政。土官有土知府、土知州、土知县；土指挥使、宣慰司宣慰使、安抚司安抚使、长官司长官等。土官有文职、武职之分,文职由吏部验封司“堪土官世职”,武职由兵部武选司典“土司政令”。各地土官由各省督抚、大臣分别管辖。 　　一、姓氏源流　　宁（Nìng 甯）姓源出有三：　　1、出自嬴姓，以谥号为氏。据《姓纂》和《急就篇》记载：“宁氏与秦同姓，秦襄公曾孙谥宁公，支庶因以为姓。”春秋时期，秦国国君秦襄公有曾孙去世后谥号“宁”，其支庶子孙有以其谥号“宁”为氏，世代相传姓宁。　　2、出自姬姓，来源于封地，以邑名为氏。上古周朝时，卫国有位公族叫卫成公，卫武公将其儿子姬季亹（Wěi 音伟）封于宁邑（今河南省修武县）。他的子孙便以封地名为姓，称宁氏，世代相传姓宁。据《元和姓纂》四十六：“甯，卫康叔之后，至武公生季亹，食采于甯，弟顷叔生跪，跪孙速生武子俞，俞生殖，殖生悼子喜，九世卿族。”又《潜夫论》引《世本》云：“甯氏出自卫武公子季亹，食采于甯，因以为氏。”再《姓氏考略》：“甯，卫康叔之后，至武公生季亹，食采于甯，以邑为氏。望出齐郡，又与宁通。汉甯成，史记作宁城。”据此，宁氏发祥于春秋时代距今两三千年前的河北、河南一带古老家世，始祖卫康叔是周武王同母弟，当时被封为诸侯的周文王众多子弟之中，相当出类拔萃。卫武公则为卫国第二任国君，其在位时间相当于公元前812-758年。　　3、出自满族复姓所改。清满族有宁佳氏、宁古塔氏，入关后有从汉姓习俗，改单姓为宁氏。　　得姓始祖：季亹。宁氏的远沮乃是周文王第九子姓姬名封，因他初封于康，后人称他为康叔。周武王灭商后，把殷民七族和商故都（今河南省安阳）周围地区分封给他，国号“卫”，定都朝歌（今河南省淇县），成为西周卫国的始祖。传至卫成公时，其子姬季亹分封于宁邑（今河南省修武县），后来他以邑为姓氏，其后裔世代相传姓宁，这便是宁姓的来源。到东周春秋战国时期，其后裔宁相、宁渝、宁喜等，皆为卫国史籍有名的大夫。其中一名宁戚者，从卫国迁去齐国的国都临淄（今山东省淄博市东北）居住，也当上齐桓公的大夫，后来世代为官。故宁氏后人尊季亹为宁姓的得姓始祖。　　二、迁徙分布　　（缺）宁姓在大陆和台湾都没有列入百家姓前一百位。宁姓出自姬姓：春秋时期，卫成公将小儿子季亹封在宁（今河南省获嘉县，一说今河南省修武县），季亹的后代中有的以封地名作为姓氏，称宁氏。　　三、历史名人　　宁 俞：卫国大夫，就是大名鼎鼎的卫武子，贤明忠勤，于卫文公有道之时，无事可见，当卫成公无道之日，却不避艰险，被孔夫子极口赞美为“邦有道则智，邦无道则愚，其智可及也，其愚不可及也。” 　　宁 戚：春秋初期卫国人，修德不用而商贾，宿于齐国的东门之外。有一天，率先称霸诸侯的齐桓公夜出，听到他饭牛扣牛角而歌，从歌词中，知道他的贤德，就命管仲迎拜为齐国的上卿，表现得果然高明，后来还进一步继管仲为齐相，千古垂名。 　　宁 越：战国时中牟人。他家世代种田为生，但他感到种田太辛苦。便问朋友说：“怎样才能免除种田的辛苦？”他的朋友说：“如果你能立志求学，苦读30年，就不用再种田了。”他说：“别人休息的时候，我不休息，别人睡觉的时候，我不睡觉，我苦读15年，应当有所成就。”他刻苦读书15年，因为品学兼优，周成公就聘他为师。终于实现了他的志愿。　　宁 成：西汉官吏，南阳穰县（今河南省邓县）人。他任济南都尉时，执法严厉。后来任关都尉时，出入关的人都哀叹：“宁见乳虎，无直宁成之怒”。后辞官回乡经营，果然大富大贵，家族昌盛。　　宁 玉：元朝将军，能拉强弓，力大过人，为朝廷立功而当大官，他虽是武将，但很有修养，谦虚待人，深受赞扬。　　宁原悌：壮族历史上最早的史学家。钦江县人，出生宦海门第，曾祖为廉州刺史，父封谏议大夫。少年时勤奋好学，才识过人。唐武后永昌元年（689年）会试考取进士，又参加宫廷贤良策试，当时应试者有1000多人，以成绩优异排名第九，朝廷内外为之惊异。武后时授职校书郎，后累次升迁为谏议大夫。唐景云二年（771年），睿宗的两个女儿入道，要为她们建立华丽寺观，原悌以先朝为鉴，上书力谏，睿宗遂纳而停建寺观。在任职期间，积极参与国事谏议，其见解深得睿宗赏识。唐玄宗时，原悌以谏议大夫兼修国史，他胸怀坦荡，秉笔直书。玄宗审阅所修史稿，见直书李建成、李元吉被李世民所杀的事，便晓喻说：“白马求卿，黄金赎罪，以为如何？”原悌答曰：“周公诛杀管叔、蔡叔，季友鸩杀叔牙，虽然太宗不得已杀掉建成、元吉，这也是他们自取灭亡罢了。”由是得罪玄宗，被罢官还乡。　　宁完我：明清之际辽东辽阳（今属辽宁）人，字公甫。天命年间投后金（清），隶汉军正红旗。天聪在文馆办事，建议设六部，为皇太极所采纳。后以好赌被免职。顺治元年（1644年）起用为学士，不久擢弘文院大学士。曾三次任会试主考官，充《明史》、《清太宗实录》总裁官。十年授议政大臣，次年因争权夺利，排陷陈名夏致死。后以年老休退。　　宁调元：字仙霞，别号大一。湖南省醛陵人。清光绪三十一年（1905年）在日本参加同盟会。次年创办《洞庭波》杂志（后更名《汉帜》）。萍例醛起义爆发，回国赶往参加，在岳州（今岳阳市）被捕。三年后获释，至北京办《帝国日报》。武昌起义后在两湖从事革命工作。民国元年（1912年）在任上海《民声日报》主编，旋任广东三佛铁路总办。民国2年宋教仁被暗杀，到汉口秘密活动讨袁，被黎元洪逮捕，在武昌遇害。年40岁。有《太一遗书）留世。　　宁协万：字楚禅，号邦和，湖南省长沙人。华兴会会员，民国12年应蔡元培之聘任国立北平大学教授。民国26年抗日战争爆发后，辞去职务，编写史料和法学著作。著有《国际公法》、《最近政治史》、《宁卢讲义录》、《现行国际法》、《西征记事》、《柏林旅次》等。　　四、郡望堂号　　1、郡望　　据《姓纂》记载：“卫康叔之后，至卫成公生季亹，食采于宁，以邑为氏。”望出齐郡。　　齐 郡：西汉先为临淄郡，后改齐郡，治所今在山东省淄博市。　　2、堂号　　宁姓的主要堂号有：“齐郡堂”、“达孝堂”、“笃亲堂”、“成德堂”等。　　【宁姓宗祠通用对联】　　〖宁姓宗祠四言通用联〗　　奇才霸国；　　史笔直书。　　——佚名撰宁姓宗祠通用联　　上联典指春秋时卫国人宁戚，想辅佐齐桓公，但又因穷困无法自荐，于是为商旅挽车到了齐国，住在齐都东门外为人喂牛。一次，他见桓公出东门，便扣牛角而歌道：“南山矸，白石烂，后不遭尧与舜禅，短布单衣适至骭（Gàn 音赣，意小腿），从昏饭牛薄夜半，长夜漫漫何时旦？”桓公听了，认为他是异人，便用为上卿，后迁国相。下联典指唐代宁悌原，累官至谏议大夫。修国史直刺王妃，玄宗欲易之，不从，遂以违旨名去官。　　匡勷桓公；　　师事威王。　　——佚名撰宁姓宗祠通用联　　上联典指春秋宁戚扣牛角而作歌，齐桓公用为大夫，遂成霸业。下联典指战国时赵国人宁越，耕种之余，发愤读书，十五年后终成为西周威公（周考王所分封的小国西周国君）之师（一说为齐威王之师）。　　〖宁姓宗祠五言通用联〗　　严肃朝廷相；　　勤奋帝王师。　　——佚名撰宁姓宗祠通用联　　上联典指西汉骨史宁成。宁成，南阳人。执法严峻，为宗室、豪强所畏惧。武帝时任内史。下联典指西汉赵国人宁越，原为中牟农民。因努力求学，十五年后即成为周威公之师。　　〖宁姓宗祠七言通用联〗　　礼贤下士称良将；　　博学鸿儒任大臣。　　——佚名撰宁姓宗祠通用联　　上联典指元代师职宁玉，礼贤下士，人称有古良将风。 下联典指清代实录总裁官宁完我，擢宏文院大学士，后授议政大臣。　　修史直书全其节；　　辅君复国表其忠。　　——佚名撰宁姓宗祠通用联　　上联典指唐代人宁原悌，曾参与修国史，因违逆玄宗旨意而去官。下联典指春秋时卫国大夫宁俞，卫成公被晋国抓获时，他以忠辅君，终于复国。　　祖德绵长光卫国；　　宗功赫爵耀齐邦。　　——佚名撰宁姓宗祠通用联　　此联为宁氏宗祠齐郡堂通用联。全联典出宁氏先祖在春秋战国时代卫、齐两国的事迹。宁氏在卫国九世卿族，权重一时；后宁戚又在齐国任大夫，辅佐齐桓公。齐郡堂为宁氏之堂号。　　福海恩深宗源远；　　鳌山德高世泽长。　　——佚名撰宁姓宗祠通用联　　此联为广西壮族自治区灵山县新圩镇尧家村宁氏福海公支系祠堂联（1）　　〖宁姓宗祠七言以上通用联〗　　扣角兴歌，得为霸佐；　　读书发愤，终成王师。　　——佚名撰宁姓宗祠通用联　　上联典指春秋时，宁戚为人挽车，至齐，于车下饭牛，扣牛角而歌，桓公闻而异之，拜为上卿，后迁国相。下联典指春秋时宁越苦耕勤读，卒为西周威公师（一说为齐威王师）。　　勤学直书，应念先人之德；　　辅君佐霸，当弘乃祖之功。　　——佚名撰宁姓宗祠通用联　　此联为安徽省阜阳市宁氏宗祠联。上联典指战国时赵国人宁越、宁原悌事典。下联典指春秋时卫国人宁戚、宁俞事典。　　济水分流，千年尚识支派；　　鳌山肇启，百世难忘本源。　　——佚名撰宁姓宗祠通用联　　此联为广西壮族自治区灵山县新圩镇尧家村宁氏福海公支系祠堂联（2）　　奇才霸国，名高卫国无双士；　　史笔直书，吏列齐卿第一人。　　——佚名撰宁姓宗祠通用联　　此联为宁氏宗祠齐郡堂通用联。（见上《宁姓宗祠七言通用联》首联联释）　　或智或愚，成保身济君宏业；　　且歌且挽，储为卿作相奇才。　　——佚名撰宁姓宗祠通用联　　上联典指周代宁武子事典。下联典指战国时卫国卿士宁戚事典。　　统系接闽江，由兹派别分支，数十世来绵两粤；　　祠堂归化县，此后宗联本根，五百年前证一家。　　——佚名撰宁姓宗祠通用联　　此联广东省化州县宁氏宗祠联。　　【中国人民解放军宁姓开国将军生平简介】　　宁贤文少将　　宁贤文（），湖北省大悟县人。1929年加入中国共产主义青年团。1930年参加中国工农红军。曾于1933年由团转入中国共产党。　　土地革命战争时期，任红军教导大队文书，独立师3团1营连文书，红四方面军交通大队排长，四川省委交通队队长。参加了长征。　　抗日战争时期，任129师随营学校科长，冀南军区教导大队队长，特务团团长，东北野战军3纵队8师师长。　　中华人民共和国成立后，1950年入朝参战，回国后，曾任中国人民解放军40军参谋长，高级防空学校校长，湖南省公安总队队长兼政治委员。　　1955年曾被授予大校军衔，1962年曾经晋升为少将军衔。曾获三级八一勋章、二级独立自由勋章、二级解放勋章。曾获朝鲜民主主义人民共和国二级自由独立勋章。日因病在湖北省大悟县逝世，终年81岁。　　附注：在《中国人民解放军将帅名录》中，关于宁贤文的入党、任职和授衔之前的记载，均有个“曾”字，表明他受过重大的党纪、军纪处分，但似乎不是自伤（20世纪50年代至60年代，中国人民解放军拟以武力解放金门，宁贤文用大石砸脚自伤以逃避渡海作战）他作为历史上曾为中华人民共和国开国少将这件事。
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Ancient Chinese dynasties management of national affairs under the jurisdiction of the system in ethnic minority areas. It is the ancient Chinese political system.
History of China since ancient times, is a multi-ethnic country, the management of dynasties have national affairs agencies, to take a certain ethnic minority areas of management.
Chou set up the &big pedestrian&, &fortune-telling rituals of great guests,& to receive guests from afar. Six officers in a large pedestrian秋官and later set up a &small pedestrian.& In addition, the &store as& palm &exotic& to enable language translation.
Qin Qin and Han夏夷established统一六国centralized unified feudal empire. Qin said华夏族as &master& and that other ethnic groups as &customers.& Central established the Qin Dynasty, &Code-off&, &to the justice in charge of all living overseas.& Qin non-华夏族District is divided into two types: ① in the minority areas were set up to conquer that no County. ②归降the ethnic minority areas in the respective state is set (also to concede defeat state, outside the Jackson State), or set up long-chen-chen邦君guide to its邦君public. For the management of these is a state, the Central Official Code is a set of states (Chinese vassal state called Code). &Han Gongqing Baiguan Table& contains: &Code of vassal state,秦官, palm down those living overseas.&
Qin Han for the system. Mesoproterozoic景帝six years (177 BC) to the Code for the big brokerages customer orders, &to the justice in charge of all living overseas.& Emperor Wu of the beginning year (BC 104) and change orders for big brokerages大鸿胪. Pedestrian大鸿胪, official translation, do not gun fire and a long cheng Di. One pedestrian, official translation, the early Han Dyna another fire, in order to make County Di Chang Shing, is the management of counties, the country of &From Di in the capital.& Wang Mang大鸿胪had changed music for the Code. Han on minorities under the jurisdiction of the local administrative divisions basically inherited the Qin system: ① in the original and the new conquest of the ethnic minority areas located below County Road, the Han Dynasty set up a total of 32 Road. ② established in the country of minorities归降. Such as the Emperor元狩three years (BC 120), the Huns邪王down Kun Han, Han moved to the Yellow River from the south of the Hexi Corridor Longxi, North and上郡,朔方, it is the五郡clouds beyond the Great Wall, is divided into five a country of jurisdiction. The country of the Han Dynasty and different, it is a Han-chen, on the one hand, on the other hand, preservation of the original peoples of the &national title& and the culture. Home country of都尉, Shing, Hou, a mass and other officials. Code of the Han Dynasty set up country of the central government was dedicated to the management of the country of issue, the translation属官nine. Han Ping River成帝year (BC 28), revocation of Code of vassal state,大鸿胪into.
Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties to the Northern Wei from the three countries, with most of the North Korea大鸿胪and谒者仆射home or office, such as鸿胪卿responsible for managing the affairs of ethnic minorities. Only 12 home-Qing Liang, Qing Korokan for the winter, changing to大鸿胪Korokan T后周Department located bin.
Sui Sui and Tang Liang passage system Korokan Temple said. Early Tang Dynasty also established Korokan Temple Moon Dragon Emperor years (661 ~ 663) to Temple with the text, the first year of Empress Wu light house (684) to the Secretary-bin Temple, in the years宗神龙(705 ~ 706) and resume hung Temple people, &and the terrible instrument in charge of guests&, Chi-ching Temple to hold the answer is yes, another passenger and the Department of Code, the Secretary for national work. Temple Korokan national affairs functions: ① &Where long-Jun夷狄an audience with the Quartet, the辨其, etc., and to be of bin&; ② Where &the son of long-Jun夷狄passage官爵who are辨其嫡庶Details the possibility of &; ③&诸蕃if people have blocked drainage UAE life ceremony, then by the book and to their country. & Specific charge of the Department of Code off &Fan四夷naturalized in the name of several persons,& all over Beijing for the minority leader, &who pay tribute, enjoy dinner, sending welcome, both from MA.辨其, such as spaces for the ministry& . &Where the head of an audience with the Drainage UAE, the Museum for all of. Mourning the death such as disease, the amount of things to. Also Fan, then file its decline with thanks the Day& ( &the old Tang Dynasty Chi Official&). Clearance for sub-Tang 10, Road-based government, of their ethnic minority areas, &that is out of their tribal home counties&, &their big都督府more,& collectively referred to as halter tie up the state. Tang height, the jurisdiction of the House are in ethnic minority areas, a total of 856 states. House minority areas, the state, both in the border 10 dohobu都督府or jurisdiction by the minority leader of the local office captaincy general, provincial governor, &Jiede hereditary.&
Harvest Song, Yuan, between the Song Dynasty (1078 ~ 1085), based Korokan Temple Temple Qing Korokan home, in charge of &Tributary四夷, banquet workers, giving thanks to shuttle things.& &Where long-Jun四夷to price an audience, such as辨其bit to pin courtesy, the grant awarded to the premises and see the speech, a gift, banquet-style set up, quit early to do a有司; have tribute, then with the number of reported Quartet Hall, introduced in order to enter.诸蕃closure list, that is the ceremony of life &(& Official History of the Song Zhi-five &). Temple Korokan Song is in charge of domestic-owned minority affairs, but also management and foreign countries to gain access to make and so on. Southern Song Dynasty, the Temple of waste Korokan,礼部to the management of national affairs. Song Dynasty dohobu waste, a都督府type of build, halter tie up the state and counties are from neighboring states (non-halter tie up the nature of the state) jurisdiction.
Kim Liao, Jin set up tribal governor to lead the Department of all ethnic groups fan. Liao said, &tribal Jiedushi Division,& Kim said, &all tribal governor.& In addition to home Jiedushi Jin,节度副使, Magistrate, but also have to understand,司吏,通事, such as translation officer.
Yuan Central Korokan no Temple, &Where will North Korea, ascended the throne, after the book building certificates, and foreign pilgrims尊号offer gift&, by Miriam礼部Secretary in charge of the S &then introduced with the official dong诸番living overseas to pay tribute persons &, by the Museum in charge of the礼部. Yuan established a central government Explorer中书省, local is the highest executive body of中书省line (the Province). Province 10 National Division. Province established the following roads, government, state and county. Yuan Dynasty of the minorities on both the implementation of various system management system. Northern ethnic minority areas of the province under one jurisdiction, in the Khitan, Jurchen, party items and Qiang ethnic minority inhabited areas, are generally set up the way, government, state, county rule, &all of the liturgical, than on the Mainland.& Tibet, the central of &the general hospital system, and from division to the country& (referring to the master of Tibetan Buddhism Pagba). The total hospital system, &in charge of Education's浮图, do Tubo Virtue& ( &Biography元史桑哥&). Yuan seventeen years (1280), legislation to enable the Secretary have merit, &the division in charge of the EC played Dili Tibetan monks and civilians, etc.& ( &Ji元史generation&). Yuan twenty-five years (1288), quoted Tang Tubo system to an audience hall in Nobumasa story, with a total system of hospital changed its name to Nobumasa hospital. Nobumasa Court jurisdiction over Tibet, the Tibetan usti under宣慰司, flowers, etc.宣慰司Gans command. Yuan Heilongjiang People in remote areas of water, Nuzhen, Liaoning Province in the House under the All-lan, water, etc. People Road, the remains of their customs, with theAncient Chinese dynasties management of national affairs under the jurisdiction of the system in ethnic minority areas. It is the ancient Chinese political system.
History of China since ancient times, is a multi-ethnic country, the management of dynasties have national affairs agencies, to take a certain ethnic minority areas of management.
Chou set up the &big pedestrian&, &fortune-telling rituals of great guests,& to receive guests from afar. Six officers in a large pedestrian秋官and later set up a &small pedestrian.& In addition, the &store as& palm &exotic& to enable language translation.
Qin Qin and Han夏夷established统一六国centralized unified feudal empire. Qin said华夏族as &master& and that other ethnic groups as &customers.& Central established the Qin Dynasty, &Code-off&, &to the justice in charge of all living overseas.& Qin non-华夏族District is divided into two types: ① in the minority areas were set up to conquer that no County. ②归降the ethnic minority areas in the respective state is set (also to concede defeat state, outside the Jackson State), or set up long-chen-chen邦君guide to its邦君public. For the management of these is a state, the Central Official Code is a set of states (Chinese vassal state called Code). &Han Gongqing Baiguan Table& contains: &Code of vassal state,秦官, palm down those living overseas.&
Qin Han for the system. Mesoproterozoic景帝six years (177 BC) to the Code for the big brokerages customer orders, &to the justice in charge of all living overseas.& Emperor Wu of the beginning year (BC 104) and change orders for big brokerages大鸿胪. Pedestrian大鸿胪, official translation, do not gun fire and a long cheng Di. One pedestrian, official translation, the early Han Dyna another fire, in order to make County Di Chang Shing, is the management of counties, the country of &From Di in the capital.& Wang Mang大鸿胪had changed music for the Code. Han on minorities under the jurisdiction of the local administrative divisions basically inherited the Qin system: ① in the original and the new conquest of the ethnic minority areas located below County Road, the Han Dynasty set up a total of 32 Road. ② established in the country of minorities归降. Such as the Emperor元狩three years (BC 120), the Huns邪王down Kun Han, Han moved to the Yellow River from the south of the Hexi Corridor Longxi, North and上郡,朔方, it is the五郡clouds beyond the Great Wall, is divided into five a country of jurisdiction. The country of the Han Dynasty and different, it is a Han-chen, on the one hand, on the other hand, preservation of the original peoples of the &national title& and the culture. Home country of都尉, Shing, Hou, a mass and other officials. Code of the Han Dynasty set up country of the central government was dedicated to the management of the country of issue, the translation属官nine. Han Ping River成帝year (BC 28), revocation of Code of vassal state,大鸿胪into.
Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties to the Northern Wei from the three countries, with most of the North Korea大鸿胪and谒者仆射home or office, such as鸿胪卿responsible for managing the affairs of ethnic minorities. Only 12 home-Qing Liang, Qing Korokan for the winter, changing to大鸿胪Korokan T后周Department located bin.
Sui Sui and Tang Liang passage system Korokan Temple said. Early Tang Dynasty also established Korokan Temple Moon Dragon Emperor years (661 ~ 663) to Temple with the text, the first year of Empress Wu light house (684) to the Secretary-bin Temple, in the years宗神龙(705 ~ 706) and resume hung Temple people, &and the terrible instrument in charge of guests&, Chi-ching Temple to hold the answer is yes, another passenger and the Department of Code, the Secretary for national work. Temple Korokan national affairs functions: ① &Where long-Jun夷狄an audience with the Quartet, the辨其, etc., and to be of bin&; ② Where &the son of long-Jun夷狄passage官爵who are辨其嫡庶Details the possibility of &; ③&诸蕃if people have blocked drainage UAE life ceremony, then by the book and to their country. & Specific charge of the Department of Code off &Fan四夷naturalized in the name of several persons,& all over Beijing for the minority leader, &who pay tribute, enjoy dinner, sending welcome, both from MA.辨其, such as spaces for the ministry& . &Where the head of an audience with the Drainage UAE, the Museum for all of. Mourning the death such as disease, the amount of things to. Also Fan, then file its decline with thanks the Day& ( &the old Tang Dynasty Chi Official&). Clearance for sub-Tang 10, Road-based government, of their ethnic minority areas, &that is out of their tribal home counties&, &their big都督府more,& collectively referred to as halter tie up the state. Tang height, the jurisdiction of the House are in ethnic minority areas, a total of 856 states. House minority areas, the state, both in the border 10 dohobu都督府or jurisdiction by the minority leader of the local office captaincy general, provincial governor, &Jiede hereditary.&
Harvest Song, Yuan, between the Song Dynasty (1078 ~ 1085), based Korokan Temple Temple Qing Korokan home, in charge of &Tributary四夷, banquet workers, giving thanks to shuttle things.& &Where long-Jun四夷to price an audience, such as辨其bit to pin courtesy, the grant awarded to the premises and see the speech, a gift, banquet-style set up, quit early to do a有司; have tribute, then with the number of reported Quartet Hall, introduced in order to enter.诸蕃closure list, that is the ceremony of life &(& Official History of the Song Zhi-five &). Temple Korokan Song is in charge of domestic-owned minority affairs, but also management and foreign countries to gain access to make and so on. Southern Song Dynasty, the Temple of waste Korokan,礼部to the management of national affairs. Song Dynasty dohobu waste, a都督府type of build, halter tie up the state and counties are from neighboring states (non-halter tie up the nature of the state) jurisdiction.
Kim Liao, Jin set up tribal governor to lead the Department of all ethnic groups fan. Liao said, &tribal Jiedushi Division,& Kim said, &all tribal governor.& In addition to home Jiedushi Jin,节度副使, Magistrate, but also have to understand,司吏,通事, such as translation officer.
Yuan Central Korokan no Temple, &Where will North Korea, ascended the throne, after the book building certificates, and foreign pilgrims尊号offer gift&, by Miriam礼部Secretary in charge of the S &then introduced with the official dong诸番living overseas to pay tribute persons &, by the Museum in charge of the礼部. Yuan established a central government Explorer中书省, local is the highest executive body of中书省line (the Province). Province 10 National Division. Province established the following roads, government, state and county. Yuan Dynasty of the minorities on both the implementation of various system management system. Northern ethnic minority areas of the province under one jurisdiction, in the Khitan, Jurchen, party items and Qiang ethnic minority inhabited areas, are generally set up the way, government, state, county rule, &all of the liturgical, than on the Mainland.& Tibet, the central of &the general hospital system, and from division to the country& (referring to the master of Tibetan Buddhism Pagba). The total hospital system, &in charge of Education's浮图, do Tubo Virtue& ( &Biography元史桑哥&). Yuan seventeen years (1280), legislation to enable the Secretary have merit, &the division in charge of the EC played Dili Tibetan monks and civilians, etc.& ( &Ji元史generation&). Yuan twenty-five years (1288), quoted Tang Tubo system to an audience hall in Nobumasa story, with a total system of hospital changed its name to Nobumasa hospital. Nobumasa Court jurisdiction over Tibet, the Tibetan usti under宣慰司, flowers, etc.宣慰司Gans command. Yuan Heilongjiang People in remote areas of water, Nuzhen, Liaoning Province in the House under the All-lan, water, etc. People Road, the remains of their customs, with theAncient Chinese dynasties management of national affairs under the jurisdiction of the system in ethnic minority areas. It is the ancient Chinese political system.
History of China since ancient times, is a multi-ethnic country, the management of dynasties have national affairs agencies, to take a certain ethnic minority areas of management.
Chou set up the &big pedestrian&, &fortune-telling rituals of great guests,& to receive guests from afar. Six officers in a large pedestrian秋官and later set up a &small pedestrian.& In addition, the &store as& palm &exotic& to enable language translation.
Qin Qin and Han夏夷established统一六国centralized unified feudal empire. Qin said华夏族as &master& and that other ethnic groups as &customers.& Central established the Qin Dynasty, &Code-off&, &to the justice in charge of all living overseas.& Qin non-华夏族District is divided into two types: ① in the minority areas were set up to conquer that no County. ②归降the ethnic minority areas in the respective state is set (also to concede defeat state, outside the Jackson State), or set up long-chen-chen邦君guide to its邦君public. For the management of these is a state, the Central Official Code is a set of states (Chinese vassal state called Code). &Han Gongqing Baiguan Table& contains: &Code of vassal state,秦官, palm down those living overseas.&
Qin Han for the system. Mesoproterozoic景帝six years (177 BC) to the Code for the big brokerages customer orders, &to the justice in charge of all living overseas.& Emperor Wu of the beginning year (BC 104) and change orders for big brokerages大鸿胪. Pedestrian大鸿胪, official translation, do not gun fire and a long cheng Di. One pedestrian, official translation, the early Han Dyna another fire, in order to make County Di Chang Shing, is the management of counties, the country of &From Di in the capital.& Wang Mang大鸿胪had changed music for the Code. Han on minorities under the jurisdiction of the local administrative divisions basically inherited the Qin system: ① in the original and the new conquest of the ethnic minority areas located below County Road, the Han Dynasty set up a total of 32 Road. ② established in the country of minorities归降. Such as the Emperor元狩three years (BC 120), the Huns邪王down Kun Han, Han moved to the Yellow River from the south of the Hexi Corridor Longxi, North and上郡,朔方, it is the五郡clouds beyond the Great Wall, is divided into five a country of jurisdiction. The country of the Han Dynasty and different, it is a Han-chen, on the one hand, on the other hand, preservation of the original peoples of the &national title& and the culture. Home country of都尉, Shing, Hou, a mass and other officials. Code of the Han Dynasty set up country of the central government was dedicated to the management of the country of issue, the translation属官nine. Han Ping River成帝year (BC 28), revocation of Code of vassal state,大鸿胪into.
Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties to the Northern Wei from the three countries, with most of the North Korea大鸿胪and谒者仆射home or office, such as鸿胪卿responsible for managing the affairs of ethnic minorities. Only 12 home-Qing Liang, Qing Korokan for the winter, changing to大鸿胪Korokan T后周Department located bin.
Sui Sui and Tang Liang passage system Korokan Temple said. Early Tang Dynasty also established Korokan Temple Moon Dragon Emperor years (661 ~ 663) to Temple with the text, the first year of Empress Wu light house (684) to the Secretary-bin Temple, in the years宗神龙(705 ~ 706) and resume hung Temple people, &and the terrible instrument in charge of guests&, Chi-ching Temple to hold the answer is yes, another passenger and the Department of Code, the Secretary for national work. Temple Korokan national affairs functions: ① &Where long-Jun夷狄an audience with the Quartet, the辨其, etc., and to be of bin&; ② Where &the son of long-Jun夷狄passage官爵who are辨其嫡庶Details the possibility of &; ③&诸蕃if people have blocked drainage UAE life ceremony, then by the book and to their country. & Specific charge of the Department of Code off &Fan四夷naturalized in the name of several persons,& all over Beijing for the minority leader, &who pay tribute, enjoy dinner, sending welcome, both from MA.辨其, such as spaces for the ministry& . &Where the head of an audience with the Drainage UAE, the Museum for all of. Mourning the death such as disease, the amount of things to. Also Fan, then file its decline with thanks the Day& ( &the old Tang Dynasty Chi Official&). Clearance for sub-Tang 10, Road-based government, of their ethnic minority areas, &that is out of their tribal home counties&, &their big都督府more,& collectively referred to as halter tie up the state. Tang height, the jurisdiction of the House are in ethnic minority areas, a total of 856 states. House minority areas, the state, both in the border 10 dohobu都督府or jurisdiction by the minority leader of the local office captaincy general, provincial governor, &Jiede hereditary.&
Harvest Song, Yuan, between the Song Dynasty (1078 ~ 1085), based Korokan Temple Temple Qing Korokan home, in charge of &Tributary四夷, banquet workers, giving thanks to shuttle things.& &Where long-Jun四夷to price an audience, such as辨其bit to pin courtesy, the grant awarded to the premises and see the speech, a gift, banquet-style set up, quit early to do a有司; have tribute, then with the number of reported Quartet Hall, introduced in order to enter.诸蕃closure list, that is the ceremony of life &(& Official History of the Song Zhi-five &). Temple Korokan Song is in charge of domestic-owned minority affairs, but also management and foreign countries to gain access to make and so on. Southern Song Dynasty, the Temple of waste Korokan,礼部to the management of national affairs. Song Dynasty dohobu waste, a都督府type of build, halter tie up the state and counties are from neighboring states (non-halter tie up the nature of the state) jurisdiction.
Kim Liao, Jin set up tribal governor to lead the Department of all ethnic groups fan. Liao said, &tribal Jiedushi Division,& Kim said, &all tribal governor.& In addition to home Jiedushi Jin,节度副使, Magistrate, but also have to understand,司吏,通事, such as translation officer.
Yuan Central Korokan no Temple, &Where will North Korea, ascended the throne, after the book building certificates, and foreign pilgrims尊号offer gift&, by Miriam礼部Secretary in charge of the S &then introduced with the official dong诸番living overseas to pay tribute persons &, by the Museum in charge of the礼部. Yuan established a central government Explorer中书省, local is the highest executive body of中书省line (the Province). Province 10 National Division. Province established the following roads, government, state and county. Yuan Dynasty of the minorities on both the implementation of various system management system. Northern ethnic minority areas of the province under one jurisdiction, in the Khitan, Jurchen, party items and Qiang ethnic minority inhabited areas, are generally set up the way, government, state, county rule, &all of the liturgical, than on the Mainland.& Tibet, the central of &the general hospital system, and from division to the country& (referring to the master of Tibetan Buddhism Pagba). The total hospital system, &in charge of Education's浮图, do Tubo Virtue& ( &Biography元史桑哥&). Yuan seventeen years (1280), legislation to enable the Secretary have merit, &the division in charge of the EC played Dili Tibetan monks and civilians, etc.& ( &Ji元史generation&). Yuan twenty-five years (1288), quoted Tang Tubo system to an audience hall in Nobumasa story, with a total system of hospital changed its name to Nobumasa hospital. Nobumasa Court jurisdiction over Tibet, the Tibetan usti under宣慰司, flowers, etc.宣慰司Gans command. Yuan Heilongjiang People in remote areas of water, Nuzhen, Liaoning Province in the House under the All-lan, water, etc. People Road, the remains of their customs, with the
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