How do we choose what, when and how much to eat? It’s a simple question but a complete answer is currently impossible to give. Of course, we need the energy and nutrients present in food to allow us to live, and this idea of energy balance is familiar - we use a varying number of calories each day and need to replace them. But it is certain that we don’t eat only because we’re hungry. Imagine that eating was driven only by energy balance (homeostatic) that we only ate the calories and nutrients that we needed. If that were the case then neither obesity nor conditions featuring low body weight would exist. If we ate a little too much one day, we would eat less the next and our body weight would remain stable. This does not happen.
We know that it is unhealthy to be over- or underweight, and many of us will have tried to lose weight or tried to avoid putting it on in the first place. But preventing or reversing weight gain is hard. Diets and exercise, alone or together, can work reasonably well in the short-term, but any weight loss is usually regained, with a little extra on top. Medicines to reverse obesity have a very poor history, many have been withdrawn due to side-effects. Currently the only successful treatment for obesity is bariatric surgery but this is expensive, irreversible and its long-term effects are not yet known.
Keeping a healthy body weight is exceptionally hard. It can feel that many influences drive us towards eating. We need to think about how obesity can be avoided, about how we can make better decisions when choosing foods. In Nudge-it we aim to better understand how we make decisions about what to eat. The project takes a multi-disciplinary approach to examine the importance of four influences on food choice: early-life experience, the environment, habit and impulsivity, and emotion.
There is a large amount of experimental evidence suggesting that experiences during early life can “program” behaviour as adults. These early-life experiences do not just encompass those in young childhood, but earlier yet - prior to birth. It’s clear, therefore, that we need to be able to understand and give advice on how pregnant mothers can do their best for their children. In Nudge-it we will look at the effects of early-life exposure to stress or high-energy foods on behaviour in adulthood.
The food environment has a huge influence on food choice. Choices can only be made where they exist, and in the developed world at least, we are lucky to live in a food environment where calories and nutrients are abundant, safe to eat and inexpensive. But how does this abundance affect choice? Is a calorie a calorie independently of its source, or do different foods affect our body weight differently? In Nudge-it we examine these questions to better understand choices around how and when we eat.
Much of our daily behaviour is habitual - it’s fixed, repetitive, and with little thought for its consequences. Eating behaviour is often habitual too, we eat the same things at the same time of day. But how are habits formed? Eating c some foods seem to attract our attention irresistibly. What drives the momentary choices we make to eat high- or low-energy foods? What underlies this impulsive behaviour? In Nudge-it we will study the influence of metabolism and homeostatic control on habitual eating and impulsivity.
Mood and emotion are very influential in behaviour. Negative mood (sadness, anger, guilt) is known to affect eating behaviour, but little is known about positive effects (happiness, self-confidence and cheerfulness). This is a major omission in our understanding of food choice, with potentially important implications not just on helping us control body weight but on mental well-being in general.当前位置：
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宾语从句：在句子中起宾语作用的从句叫做宾语从句。宾语从句分为三类：动词的宾语从句，介词的宾语从句和形容词的宾语从句。宾语从句连接代词主要有：who, whom ,whose ,what ,whoever ,whomever ,whosever, whatever, whichever 等。 宾语从句的特点:1.宾语从句可以作及物动词、介词及形容词的宾语。2.宾语从句的语序一律用陈述句语序。3.连接词that引导宾语从句在句中无词义，不充当句子成份，多数情况下可以省略。4.whether 和 if 都可引导宾语从句，但 whether后可紧跟or not；whether从句可作介词的宾语。5.如果从句太长，可以用形式宾语it.
宾语从句的时态:1.主句是一般现在时，从句根据实际情况使用任何时态。例句：The headmaster hopes everything goes well.2.主句是过去时态，从句须用过去时态的某种形式。例句：She was sorry that she hadn’t finished her work on time.3.当宾语从句表示的是一个客观真理或者事实时，即使主句是过去时，从句也用一般现在时态。例句：The teacher told his class that light travels faster than sound.4.&如果从句的动作发生在主句之前，则从句要用过去完成时态。&宾语从句的语序:A. 宾语从句必须用陈述语序。 　　 False: He is wondering when can he finish this difficult job. 　　 Right: He is wondering when he can finish this difficult job. B. 有时候可以用it 作形式宾语，而把真正的宾语从句放在后面。 　　　 Bad: I thought that he could finish this　job in just two hours impossible. 　　 Good: I thought it impossible that he could finish this job in just two&hours.　&C. 带有宾语从句的复合句的否定形式一般是否定主句。 Bad: I think he doesn’t like the English teacher. 　　 Good: I don’t think he likes the English teacher.&D.&&主句一般过去时态，从句也要用过去时态。 False: He wanted to know why he is crying in the corner. 　　 Right: He wanted to know why he was crying in the corner
宾语从句的否定转移: 主句的谓语动词是think,believe,imagine,suppose,consider,espect,fancy,guess等。并且主句的主语是第一人称而且为一般现在时，从句的否定词一般要转移到主句上来,其反义疑问句一般与宾语从句一致。I don’t think he will come to my party.而不能说成I think he won’t come to my party. 我认为他不会来我的舞会. I don’t believe that man is killed by Jim,is he? 我认为那个人不是Jim所杀的,是不是? 如果宾语从句中有某个含有否定意义的形容词或副词,其反义疑问句要用肯定形式。We find that he never listens to the teacher carefully,does he? 我们发现他从来不仔细听老师讲课，是不是? 宾语从句中引导词的用法比较在复合句中作主句的宾语，引导词有：连词：that (that 常可省略),whether, if代词：who, whose, what ,which副词：when ,where, how, why 等。（一）that引导的宾语从句（在非正式场合that可以省略）1.可跟that从句做宾语的动词有：say, think, insist, wish, hope, demand, imagine, wonder, know, suppose, see, believe, agree, admit, deny, expect, explain, order, command, feel, dream, suggest, hear, mean, notice, prefer, request, require, propose, declare, report等。例句：The boy believes that he will travel through space to other planets.注意事项：当主句谓语动词是 think, believe, suppose, expect 等词，而宾语从句的意思是否定时，常把否定转移至主句表示。例句：I don’t think it is right for him to treat you like that.2.在以下情况中that不能省略a.当句中的动词后接多于两个由that引导的宾语从句时，第一个that可省，但后面的that不可省。例句：He said (that) you were too young to understand the matter and that he was asked not to tell you.b.当主句的谓语动词与that宾语从句之间有插入语时，that一般不可省。例句：Just then I noticed, for the first time, that our master was wearing his fine green coat and his black silk cap.c.当that从句是双宾语中的直接宾语时，that不可省。例句：I can’t tell him that his mother died.d.注:许多带复合宾语的句子，that引导的宾语从句经常移到句子后部，而用it作形式宾语。例句：I find it necessary that we should do the homework on time.（二）由whether,if 引导的宾语从句1.由whether(if)引导的宾语从句，实际上是一般疑问句演变而来的。意思是“是否”。宾语从句要用陈述句语序。一般说来，在宾语从句中whether与if可以互换使用，但在特殊情况下if与whether是不能互换的。例句：I wonder whether(if) they will come to our party.2.只能用whether，不能用if引导的宾语从句a.在带to的不定式前例句：We decided whether to walk there.b.在介词的后面例句：I’m thinking of whether we should go to see the film.c.在动词后面的宾语从句时例句：We discussed whether we had a sports meeting next weekd.直接与or not连用时例句：I can’t say whether or not thet can come on time.3.只能用if不能用whether引导的宾语从句a.if引导条件状语从句，意为“如果”例句：The students will go on a picnic if it is sunny.b.if引导否定概念的宾语从句时例句：He asked if I didn’t come to school yesterday.c.引导状语从句even if（即使）和as if（好象）时例句：He talks as if he has known all about it.
if,whether在宾语从句中的区别 a.if和whether在作“是否”解时,引导宾语从句常放在动词know,ask,care,wonder,find out等之后,介词后一般不用if b.少数动词,如:leave,put,discuss,doubt后的宾语从句常用whether.&c. whether后可以加or not,但是if不可以. d.在不定式前只能用whether. （如：I can’t decide whether to stay. 我不能决定是否留下。） e.避免歧异时,我们常用whether而不用if.（三）连接代词和连接副词引导的宾语从句这样的宾语从句实际上是由特殊疑问句变化而来的，宾语从句要用陈述句语序。用于这种结构的动词常常是：see, say, tell, ask, answer, know, decide, show, find out, imagine, suggest, doubt, wonder, discover, understand, inform, advise等。1.英语中的连接代词有：who,whom,whose,which,what,在句中担任主语、宾语、定语或者表语。例句：Can you tell me whom you are waiting for?2.英语中的连接副词有：when,where,why,how，在句中担任状语的成分。例句：None of us knows where these new parts can be bought.简化宾语从句常用六法：方法一：当主句谓语动词是hope， decide， wish， choose， agree， promise等，且宾语从句的主语与主句主语一致时，宾语从句可简化为不定式结构。例如：Li Ming hopes he will be back very soon.→Li Ming hopes to be back very soon.We decided that we would help him. →We decided to help him.方法二：当主句谓语动词是know， learn， remember， forget， tell等动词，且主句主语与从句主语一致时，宾语从句可简化为“疑问词+不定式”结构。例如：She has forgotten how she can open the window.→She has forgotten how to open the window.注：当主句谓语动词是tell， ask， show， teach等动词，且后带双宾语，从句主语和间接宾语一致时，宾语从句可简化为“疑问词+不定式”结构。例如：Could you tell me how I can get to the station？ →Could you tell me how to get to the station？方法三：当主句的谓语动词是order（命令），require（需要）等时，如果主句和从句的主语不一致，宾语从句可简化为“名词（代词）+不定式”结构。例如：The headmaster ordered that we should start at once. → The headmaster ordered us to start at once.方法四：某些动词后的宾语从句，可以用介词加动名词（短语）等其他形式简化。例如：He insisted that he should go with us.→He insisted on going with us.The poor boy doesn’t know when and where he was born.→The poor boy doesn’t know the time and the place of his birth.方法五：某些动词后面的宾语从句可转化为“宾语+V-ing形式（作宾语补足语）”结构。例如：Liu Ping found that there was a wallet lying on the ground.→ Liu Ping found a wallet lying on the ground.方法六：动词seem后的宾语从句，也可以用不定式（短语）来简化，但句型需要进行适当的变化。例如：It seemed that the boys were going to win. →The boys seemed to win.除上述方法外，还有一些特殊句式的转化。例如：I found that it was difficult to learn English well. →I found it difficult to learn English well.Soon we found that the ground was covered with thick snow. →Soon we found the ground covered with thick snow.They found that the box was very heavy. →They found the box very heavy&
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125184112631121649233210278613319295Does insulin influence what we choose to eat? - Medical News Today
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Does insulin influence what we choose to eat?
Written by
The more insulin there is in the brain, the more dopamine will be released, and this may affect what we choose to eat, says research published in Nature Communications.In the lab, mice made choices that would boost their dopamine levels.
Senior investigator and New York University Langone neuroscientist Margaret Rice, PhD, and her team claim that
plays a much stronger role than previously known in regulating release of dopamine.
Insulin is the hormone essential to all mammals for controlling blood sugar levels and giving a feeling of bei dopamine is a neurotransmitter that helps control the brain's reward and pleasure centers.
The findings reaffirm that insulin helps trigger the reuptake of dopamine when they also show for the first time that the net effect is a rise in dopamine levels.
The scientists may be the first to demonstrate that insulin's role in the dopamine pathway may affect and explain food choices.
Insulin boosts dopamine levels in reward centers
In one set of experiments on rodents, a rise in insulin led to 20-55% more dopamine being released in the striatal region of the brain. This is the area where dopamine's effects on the brain are felt, and which governs the body's response to getting a reward.
The rise coincided with an increase in insulin activity, as the insulin processed any food sugars the mice and rats ate. It occurred despite the reabsorption, or reuptake, of dopamine that in other regions of the brain tells an animal that its appetite is satisfied.
In separate experiments, rats that were fed low-calorie diets had a 10-fold greater sensitivity to increasing insulin levels in the brain. In other words, dopamine release occurred after only one tenth of a rise in insulin levels as seen in rats on a normal diet.
By contrast, rats on high-calorie diets lost all striatal-brain insulin responsiveness.
Role for insulin in the body's reward system
In addition, when offered a choice between a drink reward paired with either an insulin antibody injection to block hormone signaling, or a mock
injection, the rats always favored the drink-injection combination that led to intact insulin signaling, which in turn led to more dopamine.
This appears to indicate a new role for insulin as part of the brain's reward system. It suggests that rodents, and presumably people, may choose to consume high-carbohydrate or low-fat meals that release more insulin, in order to heighten dopamine release.
Rice says this finding is important because chronically elevated insulin levels and lowered insulin sensitivity in the brain are closely tied to
and , both very prevalent in the US.
The team plans further experiments on how insulin influences the mammalian brain's control over food motivation and reward pathways, and whether changes in insulin sensitivity brought about by obesity can be reversed or even prevented.
Rice says:
"If our future experiments prove successful, it could confirm our hypothesis that when people refer to an insulin-glucose rush, they may really be referring to a dopamine reward rush. And there are healthy ways to get that by making smart food choices."
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, Margaret E. Rice et al., Nature Communications, doi:10.1038/ncomms9543, published 27 October 2015.
New York University Medical Center news release, accessed 26 October 2015.
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